The Arizona Copper Mines, USA 

These localities are the result of the supergene enrichment and hydrothermal alteration of a porphyry copper sulfide intrusion. Although a good source of rare minerals, it is the fantastic assortment, quantity and quality of the more common minerals that sets the mines in this state apart from most other copper deposits. The malachite, azurite, turquoise, wulfenite, chrysocolla, cuprite, hemomorphite, kinoite, rosasite and aurichalcite specimens alone are truly inspiring.

The minerals from the copper mines of Arizona, USA specifically the great mines of Bisbee, Tiger, Tombstone, Morenci, Mammoth and Ajo, Arizona, are the result of the supergene enrichment and hydrothermal alteration of a porphyry copper sulfide intrusion. Although Arizona is well known for copper minerals, those copper mines and other mines in the state have produced ores of silver, lead, molybdenum, tin, manganese, vanadium, uranium, zinc and gold. The table below is a comprehensive and yet no doubt, an incomplete list of minerals from these mineralogically important areas. Minerals in bold indicate those minerals that were first described from specimens originating in Arizona. Minerals that resulted from mine fires are not listed.

The typical Arizona copper deposits originate from the middle Mesozoic to early Cenozoic with igneous intrusions that are characterized as a porphyry copper. Although concentrated in Arizona similar intrusions produced ore deposits in New Mexico and Sonora, Mexico. The intrusions ran into a variety of host country rock and subsequent shrinking from cooling as well as other events; have fractured and brecciated the country rocks and even the intrusions themselves. These fractures, pores and other openings left ample avenues for hot hydrothermal fluids to move into the primary ore body. These fluids served to corrode and alter the rocks. Additionally, metamorphism created some skarn type deposits. Later fluids brought mineralization of still more sulfide and oxide ores. Finally, the typical ore bodies in Arizona were subjected to weathering at or near the surface of the Earth after eons of erosion removed overlying rocks. The weathering would remove much of the ore from the near surface rocks and leach them down to the groundwater interface where they would recrystallize as new minerals in an area called a supergene enrichment zone.

The variety of minerals that were produced through this sequence of events is mind numbing as well as mine enriching. The original intrusion brought an assortment of silicates as well as the copper containing sulfides chalcopyrite and bornite. Other sulfides and assorted minerals were also deposited with the original intrusions and later hydrothermal fluids. The metamorphism is responsible for much of the unique silicate assemblages where as the weathering and recrystallization produced most of the unique copper oxide, carbonate and sulfate mineralogy as well as some silicates, such as chrysocolla, and phosphates, such as turquoise. These weathered, colorful, near surface or surface deposits are called gangue deposits and although they are often not all that profitable themselves they do point prospectors to the potential riches below. The lower supergene enrichment zone produced economically valuable secondary sulfides such as chalcocite. A quick scan of the table below will show that sulfides and sulfates make up the majority of the mineral variety with a good assortment of all the other mineral classes.

The uranium and vanadium minerals of Arizona come from locations mostly in the Northern part of the state whereas the copper mines are generally limited to the southern portion. The minerals that are produced from these deposits are included in the table below with the copper mine minerals for a more complete look at the ore mineralogy of Arizona. Typically these minerals are phosphates, sulfates and oxides and form in sedimentary conditions. Buried wood is usually the progenitor of uranium and vanadium deposits. The rotting wood produces a reducing environment. Dissolved metals can then precipitate as groundwater fluids pass through this environment and are reduced. The deposits sometimes actually petrify the wood, forming fossils. Precipitation of silica from the fluids is of course famous for producing the world renown petrified forests.

Exploited even by early Native Americans, the mines of Arizona have provided the world with many wonderful specimens and all mineral collectors and mineralogists owe them a debt of gratitude. Besides the rare species, the fabulous individual examples of the more common minerals would give these mines a place onto the list of the world's greatest mineral localities. Above all else from this state are the specimens of azurite and malachite that adorn museum collections the world over.

Elements Class:

• arsenic, bismuth, copper, gold, graphite, lead, selenium, silver, sulfur and tellurium.

Sulfides Class:

• acanthite, alabandite, bismuthinite, bornite, bournonite, calaverite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, cinnabar, covellite, cupropavonite, digenite, djurleite, dyscrasite, empressite, enargite, galena, greenockite, henryite, hessite, kiddcreekite, krennerite, molybdenite, petzite, pyrite, sphalerite, tennantite, tetrahedrite and wurtzite.

Halides Class:

• aravaipaite, artroeite, atacamite, bideauxite, botallackite, boleite, bromargyrite, chlorargyrite, claringbullite, diaboleite, fluorite, iodargyrite, laurelite, matlockite, nantokite, paralaurionite, paratacamite and yedlinite.

Oxides Class:

• apachite, cassiterite, coronadite, cryptomelane, cuprite, fairbankite, gibbsite, goethite, groutite, hematite, limonite, magnetite, murdochite, navajoite, paramelaconite, ramsdellite, rutile, tenorite and uraninite.

Carbonates Class:

• andersonite, aragonite, aurichalcite, azurite, bayleyite, calcite, cerussite, dolomite, gerhardtite, hydrocerussite, leadhillite, malachite, phosgenite, rosasite, smithsonite, susannite, swartzite and witherite.

Sulfates Class:

• alunite, anglesite, antlerite, barite, brochantite, butlerite, caledonite, chalcanthite, chalcoalumite, chalcophyllite, connellite, coquimbite, crocoite, cuprotungstite, cyanotrichite, emmonsite, epsomite, ettringite, fornacite, girdite, graemite, grandreefite, guildite, hemihedrite, hexahydrite, jarosite, jurbanite, khinite, linarite, mammothite, nickel-zippeite, oboyerite, parakhinite, pinalite, pseudograndreefite, rhomboclase, rodalquilarite, romerite, scheelite, schieffelinite, sodium-zippeite, spangolite, voltaite, wherryite, winstanleyite, wolframite, wulfenite and zinc-zippeite.

Phosphates Class:

• bermanite, coconinoite, cornwallite, descloizite, dugganite, duhamelite, dumontite, metatorbernite, mimetite, mottramite, pyromorphite, tsumebite, sengierite, stolzite, turquoise and vanadinite.

Silicates Class:

• ajoite, alamosite, albite, biotite, chlorite, chrysocolla, creaseyite, dioptase, epidote, gilalite, halloysite, hemimorphite, hillebrandite, junitoite, kinoite, luddenite, macquartite, manganbabingtonite, maricopaite, monticellite, muscovite, olivine, orthoclase, papagoite, plagioclase, plancheite, quartz, ruizite, shattuckite, stringhamite, thaumasite, tourmaline, wickenburgite, willemite, xenotlite and zircon.

Mineraloids Class:

• obsidian and opal.

The Bancroft, Madoc and Wilberforce areas of Ontario, Canada

• This assemblage of minerals is the result of a chemically unique igneous intrusions, altering the country rock (mostly impure limestones), by way of complex contact metamorphic interactions and it is these wonderful mineral sites that are the end products.

A great mineral assemblage of rare and new phosphates form a phosphate rich granitic intrusion.

After the discovery of gold in the 1870s, the conflict over control of the region sparked the last major Indian Wars on the Great Plains. The Black Hills are considered by the Sioux to be the axis Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally taken and that renumeration of initial its land back to this day. General Name, Symbol, Number Gold, Au, 79 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11 (IB), 6, d Density, Hardness 19. ... Events and Trends Technology Invention of the telephone (1876) and phonograph (1877) WTF Science Ludwig Boltzmanns statistical definition of thermodynamic entropy War, peace and politics Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) results in the collapse of the Second French Empire and in the formation of both the French Third Republic... The Indian Wars were a series of conflicts between the United States and Native American peoples (Indians) of North America. ...

Lead]]. Around these also lay groups of smaller towns and villages. From 1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,000,000 annually, and the silver mines about $3,000,000 annually.

• A collectors treasure trove of apophyllites, cavansites, zeolites and their unique suite of associated minerals. 

   India is endowed with vast mineral resources. The mineral industry constitutes an important segment of the Indian economy. India produces 84 minerals which include 4 fuel, 11 metallic, 49 non-metallic and 20 minor minerals. The value of mineral production has increased from Rs. 58 crore in 1947 to Rs. 37,000 crore in 1997-98 which constitutes about 3.5 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP). This accounts for 11 per cent of the country's total industrial production. Minerals are vital raw materials for many basic industries and are a major source of development.

    The history of mineral development is as old as civilisation itself. In India, the production of minerals dates back to ancient times as witnessed by the remnants of old mining in some parts of the country. Mining and metallurgy have always played an important role in India's history and can be dated back to one of its earliest civilisations, the pre-Harappan period, from 4000 to 2500 BC.  

Strides

    Since Independence, the country has made significant strides in the field of mineral development. The growth of mineral resources during these five decades has been phenomenal. At the time of Independence the inventory of resources was available only for a few important minerals like coal, chromite, manganese ore, bauxite, sillimanite, magnesite and gypsum. Immediately after Independence and following the adoption of the Industrial Policy Resolution, the pace of mineral exploration accelerated considerably to support the new economic development programmes of the country.

    Exploration continued not only over land but also extended to the off-shore area and the seabed. Enormous oil resources were discovered in Bombay High offshore area. Recognising the investments and the sea-bed exploration work carried out, India was conferred the status of pioneer investor by the United Nations in 1982 along with France, Japan, the then USSR and four multinational consortia. India thus became the first developing country to be recognised as a pioneer investor. Also, India is the first country in the world to have secured registration of an off-shore mining site over an area of 1,50,000 sq.km. in the central part of the Indian Ocean.  

Impetus

    The Central Government framed the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and Development) Act, 1957, repealing the MMRD Act of 1948, which extended to the whole country and applied to all minerals except oil. Under this new Act, the Mineral Concession Rules, 1960, which provide procedures for grant of prospecting licences and mining leases and the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988, which lay down the principles for systematic development and conservation of minerals and environmental protection, were framed.

    Reforms in the mineral sector were initiated in the form of a new National Mineral Policy (NMP) in 1993 which was codified in January, 1994 by amending the MMRD Act, 1957. Subsequently, to catalyse investment in prospecting and to attract state-of-the-art technology, guidelines were issued in October, 1996 for grant of large areas for aerial prospecting.

    The Department of Mines has cleared 43 proposals till date for prospecting over large areas in pursuance of these guidelines, covering an area of more than 60,000 sq.km. in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Prospecting licences have been granted in favour of the Indian subsidiaries of international mining companies like BHP Minerals of Australia, Phelps Dodge Corporation of USA, Metdist of UK and Meridien Peak Resources of Canada. Out of these, 20 prospecting licences involving an area of more than 30,000 sq.km. in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have been granted during the course of 1998. Aerial prospecting has already been completed in an area of more than 18,000 sq.km. in Rajasthan. The licences are quite upbeat about the anomalies found so far.  

Favourable Climate

    The liberalisation and globalisation of the Indian economy created conditions favourable for a rapid development of the mineral industry and the value of mineral production increased at an average rate of about six per cent per annum during the Eighth Plan Period (1992-97). India mainly exports minerals like iron ore, manganese ore, chromite, granite and cut and polished diamonds. On the other hand, coking coal, gold, copper, lead, nickel, tin, asbestos, potash and crude are some of the important mineral commodities being imported. There is an imbalance between exports and imports of minerals'-imports exceeding the exports.  

Foreign Participation

    In January, 1997 automatic route for foreign equity participation upto 50 per cent for mining of certain minerals like iron ore, manganese ore, chromite, bauxite, copper ore, lead and zinc ore was allowed. Seventy-four per cent foreign equity through automatic route was also allowed in services incidental to mining like drilling, shafting, reclamation of mines, surveys and mapping except services related to gold, silver and precious and semi-precious stones. Automatic route for foreign equity participation upto 74 per cent in base metals and alloys industries was also allowed. Higher equity participation in these fields and foreign equity participation in gold, silver and precious stones can be allowed through the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) route as per the policy guidelines. Fifty proposals of FDI, which are likely to catalyse investment of over Rs. 3,000 crore have been cleared. The Government constantly interacts with foreign investors.  

Environmental Management

    Keeping in view the adverse impact of mining operations on environment, the Government of India has initiated legislative and administrative measures to achieve sustainable development. The distribution of mineral deposits in the country is such that they are found in forests and areas rich in biodiversity. A number of enactments have been made to minimise the impact of mining and other economic developments on environment by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The Ministry of Environment and Forests constituted a Committee in March, 1998 for formulation of a long-term strategy in forest conservation vis-a-vis mining activities. Similarly, the Department of Mines constituted a National Committee in April, 1998 under the Chairmanship of the Secretary, Department of Mines, to monitor and review the environmental aspects of mining activities.

    A Committee was set up under the Chairmanship of Secretary, Department of Mines, consisting of representatives from the Industry and State Governments to examine various issues including simplification of procedure and law and also for delegation of powers to the State Governments. This Committee submitted its report in January, 1998 and the recommendations of the Committee, which aim at suitable changes in the Mining Law, delegation of powers to the State Governments and major procedural simplification, are now being considered by the Government.
 
    India's heritage in mining and mineral processing over more than last six millennia and its potential for large deposits of minerals, hitherto, unexplored through modern technology, forming as it did a core part of the ancient super-continent of Gondwana land in common with such other front-ranking mineral-rich countries as Chile, South Africa and Australia, holds the promise of a new era in mineral development in the next century. India has the potential of being a mining and economic colossus on the world scene. 

• These unique deposits are the result of boron rich hot spring fluids flowing into playa lakes and evaporating in the semi-arid/arid environment leaving wonderfully unique boron, carbonate and sulfate minerals behind.

U.S. Borax Mine, Boron, Kramer District, Kern Co., California, USA

 Because Australia is such a large country with a long and complex geological history, it has a large number of mineral localities of many different types. Many of these (such as the Broken Hill silver-lead-zinc deposit in far western New South Wales, the silver-lead mines of Dundas in western Tasmania, and the uranium mines of the Top End in the Northern Territory) have produced truly world-class mineral specimens. These localities occur in rock sequences of all ages (from the Archaean to the Cenozoic) and vary widely in size (from small prospect pits to very large modern mining operations). The following notes apply mainly to mineral deposits which have supplied good quality well-crystallised specimens.

New South Wales - Broken Hill is in far western New South Wales. It is actually closer to Adelaide than Sydney. It is perhaps the most well-known, mineralogically diverse and spectacular mineral locality in Australia, and one of the most significant of its type in the world. Because of its relatively long mining history (since discovery in 1883), large size (the Broken Hill lode has a strike length of over 3 km, width of several hundred metres, and depth to at least 2.5 km), and well-developed deep oxidised zone, it has produced many spectacular specimens of cerussite, smithsonite, pyromorphite, mimetite, azurite, anglesite, native copper, stolzite and silver halide minerals (bromian chlorargyrite, iodargyrite, bromargyrite, marshite) over many years.

It has also produced a number of spectacular primary silicate minerals such as rhodonite, spessartine garnet, manganoan pyrosmalite and bannisterite, along with fine specimens of calcite (including the manganoan variety), rhodochrosite, gypsum, dyscrasite, native silver, alabandite, cuprite, inesite, gahnite, apophyllite, bustamite and pyrite. It is the type locality for 11 mineral species: Bernalite, Brokenhillite, Costibite, Kintoreite, Marshite, Mawbyite, Miersite, Paradocrasite, Raspite, Segnitite, and Willyamite. The number of well-crystallised rare minerals, mainly occurring in microcrystalline form, is far too long to list.

The Australian Broken Hill Consols Mine near Broken Hill was famous for its well-crystallised dyscrasite, together with native silver, chlorargyrite, tetrahedrite, acanthite, stromeyerite, stephanite, phosgenite, willyamite, antimony, pyrargyrite, argentopyrite, and siderite.

• A nice assortment of arid region minerals especially rare halides.

Chile is unique, given its very long (4,345 km) and comparatively narrow shape (ranging from 90 km in the south to 380 km in the north, with 177 km average width), and for its great variety of natural features. The country extends from 18°S to 56°S latitude, and contains one of the driest regions in the world, as well as one of the wettest areas in South America. Chile is bounded on the north by Peru, on the northeast by Bolivia, on its long eastern border by Argentina and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The country covers an area of approximately 756,000 km2 and has a population of approximately 15.8 million people, over 85% of them living in urban areas.

Chile consists of three distinct longitudinal structural regions: the Andes, the Coastal Range and the Central Valley, each with its own diverse climatic regions.

The Andes (Cordillera) run along the entire length of the eastern part of the country. The watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, which follows the central and often highest ridges of the Andes, was adopted (by agreement with Argentina) as Chile's eastern boundary. The Chilean Andes are highest, most rugged and precipitous in the northern and central parts of the country, with peaks above 6,000 masl, including South America's highest peak, Aconcagua (6,960 masl) which is close to Santiago. South of Santiago, the Andes become gradually lower, with peaks of approximately 3,700 masl. In the extreme south, the Andes are fragmented by deep glacial valleys, ocean inlets and channels. The mountains extend through the island of Tierra del Fuego to the southern end of the continent.

Near the Chilean Andes and along their eastern flank is one of the world's densest concentrations of volcanoes, both extinct and active. There are over 2,000 volcanoes, including 48 that have erupted at least once within the last 100 years. The abundance of volcanic features in Chile and its vicinity is also reflected in the frequent seismic events and conspicuous evidence of recent tectonic movements.

The second structural region is the Coastal Range (Cordillera de la Costa), which follows the coastline closely throughout northern and central Chile, from Arica to Puerto Montt . The Coastal Range rises abruptly from the shoreline in high cliffs that form an unbroken wall for hundreds of kilometres, creating a coastline devoid of natural harbours and a formidable obstacle to access inland. Large parts of the coastal range are actually an eroded plateau descending west to the sea by cliff-bound terraces. The coastal range rises to an elevation of approximately 2,700 masl. The southward extension of the coastal range beyond Puerto Montt forms a chain of approximately 3,000 hilly islands, extending along a fjord-lined coast to Cape Horn at the southern extremity of the South American continent. The largest of these islands is Chiloe, just south of Puerto Montt.

The third structural region, and the most important one, insofar as human settlement is concerned, is the depression between the Andes and the Coastal Range, known as the Central Valley. This feature is a long and narrow basin of varying width, reaching approximately 80 km at its widest section. The Central Valley is not continuous, as it is interrupted by east-west oriented spurs from the Andes, and is divided by a wide mountainous intrusion into two main basins, each of which includes a number of smaller basins. Atacama's Aguas Blancas Property is located within this geographic region. The northern basin, extending from Arica to Copiapo, includes the Atacama Desert. The second major basin is that of central Chile, extending from Santiago southward to Puerto Montt, and is Chile's main agricultural area. This basin is also Chile's most densely inhabited region, and includes the country's three largest metropolitan areas: Santiago, Valparaíso/Viña del Mar and Concepción. It is climatically the most attractive part of the country.

The Loa is Chile's longest river, at about 483 km long, and other principal rivers include the Aconcagua, Baker, Bío-Bío, Imperial, Maipo, Maule, Palena, Toltén and Valdivia Rivers.

Chile's economy is primarily based on its rich mineral resources, agriculture, fishing grounds and on industry. Mining plays a dominant role in northern and central Chile, while forestry, fishing and agriculture are important in the south. Chile's main exports are minerals, fishmeal, fruits, wood pulp and paper, and chemicals.

The Chilean mining sector has grown rapidly since the late 1970's with the start-up of numerous new world class mining operations. Currently, mining constitutes almost half of the country's foreign trade, and most of the foreign currency revenues. The Chilean mining sector is attractive to both national and foreign investors. Chile is still considered to be one of the most favourable South American countries for foreign investment. As a result of Chile's large and active mining industry, the country is well positioned to meet all the infrastructure and labour demands for new mining projects.

The bulk of Chilean mining is concentrated in the northern desert areas. Chile is the largest copper producer and exporter in the world, and hosts roughly 30% of the world's reserves. In 2003, Chile produced 4.19 Mt of fine copper, representing 40% of total worldwide production. Production of copper for 2004 is estimated to have reached 4.9 Mt. State-owned Codelco remains the country's largest copper producer, totalling 1.6 Mt, or approximately 33% of Chile's copper production, in 200311. Chile is also an important gold producer, with a total production of 39 t in 2003.

Non-metallic mining in Chile involves a wide range of commodities. The main non-metallic products are calcium carbonate, gypsum, iodine, lithium carbonate, nitrates, quartz, sodium chlorides, quartz and ulexite.

Chile is the largest iodine producer in the world, with nearly 54% of the total production in 2001. The country also hosts nearly two thirds of the world reserve base, excluding seawater (USGS, 2002). Iodine is produced in Chile from surface nitrate deposits, as opposite to Japan, the second largest producing nation, where iodine is produced from gas brines.

• These classic mines have produced some of the most fantastic mineral specimens to grace museum collections and display cabinets of collectors all over the world. Although nearly depleted now, these mines have been worked for centuries for silver, tin, lead, copper, iron, tungsten and other ores. Over 300 different mineral species are known from these mines and many are only found here or were first discovered here.

Chile is unique, given its very long (4,345 km) and comparatively narrow shape (ranging from 90 km in the south to 380 km in the north, with 177 km average width), and for its great variety of natural features. The country extends from 18°S to 56°S latitude, and contains one of the driest regions in the world, as well as one of the wettest areas in South America. Chile is bounded on the north by Peru, on the northeast by Bolivia, on its long eastern border by Argentina and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. The country covers an area of approximately 756,000 km2 and has a population of approximately 15.8 million people, over 85% of them living in urban areas.

Chile consists of three distinct longitudinal structural regions: the Andes, the Coastal Range and the Central Valley, each with its own diverse climatic regions.

The Andes (Cordillera) run along the entire length of the eastern part of the country. The watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, which follows the central and often highest ridges of the Andes, was adopted (by agreement with Argentina) as Chile's eastern boundary. The Chilean Andes are highest, most rugged and precipitous in the northern and central parts of the country, with peaks above 6,000 masl, including South America's highest peak, Aconcagua (6,960 masl) which is close to Santiago. South of Santiago, the Andes become gradually lower, with peaks of approximately 3,700 masl. In the extreme south, the Andes are fragmented by deep glacial valleys, ocean inlets and channels. The mountains extend through the island of Tierra del Fuego to the southern end of the continent.

Near the Chilean Andes and along their eastern flank is one of the world's densest concentrations of volcanoes, both extinct and active. There are over 2,000 volcanoes, including 48 that have erupted at least once within the last 100 years. The abundance of volcanic features in Chile and its vicinity is also reflected in the frequent seismic events and conspicuous evidence of recent tectonic movements.

The second structural region is the Coastal Range (Cordillera de la Costa), which follows the coastline closely throughout northern and central Chile, from Arica to Puerto Montt . The Coastal Range rises abruptly from the shoreline in high cliffs that form an unbroken wall for hundreds of kilometres, creating a coastline devoid of natural harbours and a formidable obstacle to access inland. Large parts of the coastal range are actually an eroded plateau descending west to the sea by cliff-bound terraces. The coastal range rises to an elevation of approximately 2,700 masl. The southward extension of the coastal range beyond Puerto Montt forms a chain of approximately 3,000 hilly islands, extending along a fjord-lined coast to Cape Horn at the southern extremity of the South American continent. The largest of these islands is Chiloe, just south of Puerto Montt.

The third structural region, and the most important one, insofar as human settlement is concerned, is the depression between the Andes and the Coastal Range, known as the Central Valley. This feature is a long and narrow basin of varying width, reaching approximately 80 km at its widest section. The Central Valley is not continuous, as it is interrupted by east-west oriented spurs from the Andes, and is divided by a wide mountainous intrusion into two main basins, each of which includes a number of smaller basins. Atacama's Aguas Blancas Property is located within this geographic region. The northern basin, extending from Arica to Copiapo, includes the Atacama Desert. The second major basin is that of central Chile, extending from Santiago southward to Puerto Montt, and is Chile's main agricultural area. This basin is also Chile's most densely inhabited region, and includes the country's three largest metropolitan areas: Santiago, Valparaíso/Viña del Mar and Concepción. It is climatically the most attractive part of the country.
 
The Loa is Chile's longest river, at about 483 km long, and other principal rivers include the Aconcagua, Baker, Bío-Bío, Imperial, Maipo, Maule, Palena, Toltén and Valdivia Rivers.

Chile's economy is primarily based on its rich mineral resources, agriculture, fishing grounds and on industry. Mining plays a dominant role in northern and central Chile, while forestry, fishing and agriculture are important in the south. Chile's main exports are minerals, fishmeal, fruits, wood pulp and paper, and chemicals.

The Chilean mining sector has grown rapidly since the late 1970's with the start-up of numerous new world class mining operations. Currently, mining constitutes almost half of the country's foreign trade, and most of the foreign currency revenues. The Chilean mining sector is attractive to both national and foreign investors. Chile is still considered to be one of the most favourable South American countries for foreign investment. As a result of Chile's large and active mining industry, the country is well positioned to meet all the infrastructure and labour demands for new mining projects.

The bulk of Chilean mining is concentrated in the northern desert areas. Chile is the largest copper producer and exporter in the world, and hosts roughly 30% of the world's reserves. In 2003, Chile produced 4.19 Mt of fine copper, representing 40% of total worldwide production. Production of copper for 2004 is estimated to have reached 4.9 Mt. State-owned Codelco remains the country's largest copper producer, totalling 1.6 Mt, or approximately 33% of Chile's copper production, in 200311. Chile is also an important gold producer, with a total production of 39 t in 2003.

Non-metallic mining in Chile involves a wide range of commodities. The main non-metallic products are calcium carbonate, gypsum, iodine, lithium carbonate, nitrates, quartz, sodium chlorides, quartz and ulexite.

Chile is the largest iodine producer in the world, with nearly 54% of the total production in 2001. The country also hosts nearly two thirds of the world reserve base, excluding seawater (USGS, 2002). Iodine is produced in Chile from surface nitrate deposits, as opposite to Japan, the second largest producing nation, where iodine is produced from gas brines.

• Named for the metal found in many of its unusual mineral types, it is also known for silver and rare silver minerals that were extensively mined here.

The FABLED Klondike gold rush had gone into decline and those who had won and lost fortunes had begun the trek from Dawson City to Alaska or to whatever other areas the Goddess of Fortune called them, when new and, in the long run, much more significant events took place in the hinterland of Northern Ontario.

Cobalt came into being almost overnight, totally unplanned and without advance notice. At the turn of the century there were few geological maps and little suspicion of the existence of the widespread mineral deposits that have since made the Canadian Shield of Precambrian rock one of the world's greatest treasure troves.

A few hardy farmers were breaking ground in the rich clay belt north, east and west of Lake Timiskaming. Their centres of population were the villages of New Liskeard and Haileybury. The Hudson's Bay Company had a fur trading post not far away but its agents had failed to detect the other, greater, form of wealth. A certain amount of timber was being taken from the heavy forest and floated down Lake Timiskaming to the Ottawa River on its way south, but the lumbermen kept their eyes on the tree tops while their boots scuffed over the veins of silver ore.

In G. C. Farr, a former factor of the Hudson's Bay Company, the Little Clay Belt had a strong protagonist. After his retirement from the Company's service he had secured a land grant which included the present site of Haileybury. Largely as The result of his campaign to convince southerners of the importance Or Northern Ontario's agricultural potential, the provincial government sent in a team of experts to assess the possibilities.

So favourable was their report that the government decided to finance the construction of a railroad from North Bay to open up the country for full development of its agricultural possibilities and its forest resources.

The line inched northward, skirting lakes, spanning rivers and blasting its right-of-way through solid rock. At mileage point 103 it passed directly over rich silver veins, and there came the discovery that was to make Cobalt a household word throughout Canada and the whole mining world.

Credit for the discovery belongs to J. H. McKinley and Ernest Darragh who were engaged as contractors to supply ties for the railway. On August 7, 1903, while cruising the Booth Limits for timber, their eyes were caught by the gleam of metallic flakes in the rock at the southeast end of Loog Lake, later re-named Cobalt Lake. They found other flakes in the gravel on the beach, found that they were soft enough to mark with their teeth and so pliable that they could be bent. They sent a number of the rock samples to Montreal for assay, and the word came back that what they had submitted was native silver, assaying 4,000 ounces to the ton.

It was a glittering prospect, and the two applied for and received a mining lease from the government. The following spring they did further prospecting and erected a small plant. The first claim was dubbed "J.B.l" and the first chapter of Cobalt's rise to fame and fortune was begun. On this claim grew the McKinley-Darragh mine.

It was six weeks later that Fred LaRose made his more widely publicized discovery. Any official crest that might be devised for the town of Cobalt should include the husky blacksmith, a flying hammer and a red fox on a background of silver. The story, probably apocryphal, is that LaRose, at work at his forge, was so annoyed by an inquisitive fox that he threw his heavy hammer at the animal, missed it but knocked off a piece of rock to expose a glittering vein of silver. This became the LaRose Mine, and probably never in history has so haphazard a method of rock sampling yielded such rich dividends.

LaRose showed some samples of the rock to Arthur Ferland, proprietor of the Matabanick Hotel in Haileybury, remarking that it seemed to contain "some kind of damn metal". Ferland in turn showed the rock to T. W. Gibson the director of the Bureau of Mines. Gibson identified the mineral as niccolite, an ore rich in nickel, and forwarded it to Willet Green Miller, Ontario's first provincial geologist, with a note which said in part, "If the deposit is of any considerable size it will be a valuable one on account of the high percentage of nickel which this mineral contains. I think it will be almost worth your while to pay a visit to the locality before navigation closes." It was only after the samples had been examined by A. G. Burrows, the provincial assayer, that the mineral content was recognized as predominantly silver.

Miller lost no time in following up his chief's suggestion that he visit the scene. It was late in October when he arrived and he made good use of the time that was left for examination before the winter snow would cover the ground.

He found that openings had been made on four veins, and from three of them large lumps of a heavy metal had been taken. The prospectors did not know what this metal was but Miller was able to tell them that it was silver, and very rich silver at that. Nickel was there too, but only as a minor constituent.

Miller was a government geologist - by definition an ultra - conservative - and the report he wrote of what he saw on that visit and another in the following year in which he led a full - scale geological survey party, was probably one of the most optimistic documents of its kind ever prepared. His assistants in the field were two young men, Anson Cartwright and Cyril W. Knight, whose names were destined in later years to become known wherever mining was discussed in Canada. In his report he spoke of "pieces of native silver as big as stove lids or cannon balls lying on the ground, as well as cobalt bloom and niccolite."

The report was, perhaps, his major service to the infant mining camp, but while he was there he performed another in giving it a name. On the shore of Long Lake he set up a crudely-lettered board which read "Cobalt Station T. & N.O. Railway".

In Cobalt's famous square stands a memorial monument of the native rock to which is affixed a plaque bearing this testimony to the debt which Cobalt and the people of Canada owe to the man: "To Cobalt he gave its name and its place among the great mining camps of the world. He read the secret of the rocks and opened the portal for the outpouring of their wonderful riches. His monument is New Ontario."

Dr. Miller was highly honoured during his lifetime. Before his death in 1925 he left to Canadians the promise of this heritage: "I look to the regions around Hudson Bay - the Precambrian Shield, as it is sometimes called - as the most important prospecting ground or unprospected territory that remains in the world." Subsequent events have certainly offered evidence that his vision was justified.

Just about the time that Miller first arrived in the new mining camp in October, 1903, another major discovery was made by Tom Hebert who staked out the property that was to become the Nipissing Mine. More than half a million dollars' worth of silver was subsequently extracted from a single vein. Hebert sold the claim to Ellis P. Earle and his associates of New York.

The final discovery to be recorded in the first year of Cobalt's long life was made in November by Neil King who staked the property on which the O'Brien Mine was to arise.

If Miller was surprised by what he found in Cobalt, he must have been equally surprised by the complete apathy with which the world greeted his report. The fact is that Canadians of that day were not prone to enthuse over mining possibilities. Some of them had been smitten previously by mining fever with unfortunate results and it was a case of "once bitten, twice shy." News of the Cobalt discovery hit the world with the impact of a cream puff.

However, there were a few who heeded the early beckoning of fortune. One was William G. Trethewey, a Cornishman who had had previous prospecting experience in British Columbia. Trethewey arrived at Cobalt early in May of 1904 and set to work immediately. On the second day he discovered the silver vein that was to become the Trethewey Mine, and after staking it, he moved a short distance along the same bluff and discovered what was to be the Coniagas. Two such finds would be a
rich reward in the lifetime of any man. Trethewey discovered both of them in his first week of work.

A friend, Alex Longwell, who shared Trethewey's tent, helped him to stake the Trethewey and Coniagas claims and then he himself went out and located another deposit that sub sequently became the Buffalo Mine.

The mining world, which had displayed such monumental indifference following the first discovery, was jolted out of its complacency when Trethewey's first shipment reached the south. T. W. Gibson, writing later in his history, Mining fn Ontario said, "These shipments consisted of slabs of native metal stripped off the walls of the vein like boards from a barn".

A tremendous wave of excitement followed and, to quote Gibson again, "It is difficult for a later generation to realize how greatly the public mind was intrigued by the evidence that a virgin field of unusual richness had been opened for exploitation."

If Ontario was caught unprepared for the advent of Cobalt, certainly Cobalt was equally unprepared for the inrush of honest prospectors, claim jumpers, fortune hunters and eager novices that followed. Almost overnight the whole of Coleman township was studded with the corner posts of mining claims. Never in Ontario had such intensive prospecting activity been seen, and every crack and cranny in the rock, however small, was examined with the most minute care, for it could contain a king's ransom.

The town of Cobalt itself sprang into existence on the bare rock in the middle of the mining area. It grew entirely without planning, and wherever a flat outcropping big enough to support a building could be found, there was the site of a miner's home. Cobalt, with its erratically curving streets and its generally haphazard construction still bears the marks of its pioneer heyday. Aesthetically Cobalt may not be the community planner's ideal - but never should that be whispered to its loyal residents who claim with complete justification that there has never been and never will be another Cobalt.

The camp grew and prospered so that by the end of 1905 there were 16 mines in operation, and in that year shipments of ore totaled 2,144 tons with a value of $1,366,000. In the following year a total of 5,335 tons valued at $3,764,000 was mined and shipped. Production increased steadily year by year until in 1911 the apogee was reached and 31,507,791 ounces of silver came from the camp.

As could be expected under the circumstances, Cobalt was a roistering, boisterous boomtown but, on the whole, law and order were maintained well and violent crime was kept to a minimum. "The Cobalt Mess", a club of mining officials, was the camp's most popular rendezvous.

Mining legislation of the day was far from comprehensive and lawyers had a field day in arguing rights to mining claims. One provision was that before a claim could be recorded valuable mineral had actually to be found in place. As a result, it was not at all unusual to see a dozen or so men working furiously at the same time in one small area to find an exposed vein. The same clause resulted in the curious situation that lake beds were not staked in some areas despite the fact that silver veins were known to run into them. The government pre-empted these lake bottoms and later sold them at auction, realizing several million dollars.

However, the difficulties engendered by the deficiencies of The Mining Act were gradually straight ened out so that now Ontario's mining legislation has become a model followed by many of the world's governments.

In spite of the worst efforts of wildcat promoters, the infant Cobalt camp grew and prospered, and soon sounder financial support was forth coming from sources in both Canada and the United States.

The Timmins - McMartin - Dunlap group, originally of Mattawa, bought out LaRose. The O'Briens, railway contractors in the Ottawa Valley, took over the King discoveries with spectacular success at Cobalt and later in Gowganda. E. P. Earle and his associates acquired the Hebert finds and incorporated the Nipissing Mining Company - just about the biggest winner of them all. J. R. Booth took over the McKinley - Darragh properties while Trethewey financed his own developments, in association with Col. W. R. Leonard on the Coniagas.

A group of farmers and small businessmen in the New Liskeard area had formed a syndicate, and even before the Cobalt strike they had prospectors at work in the Larder Lake and Temagami areas. They quickly deployed their forces into the Cobalt camp and staked several claims. One of these properties which they sold for $810,000 later became the Silver Queen Mine.

Another which was mined for several years ultimately paid nearly two million in dividends and the stock, originally priced at eight cents per share, later brought $290. The fortunes made by members of the original group went to build up several large northern enterprises.

In a sense Cobalt has always been a "poor man's mining camp". Because most of the rich mineral-bearing veins lie close to the surface, very deep mines and costly operations have never been necessary. Generally the individual mines are not large or elaborate operations such as may be found in other areas of Northern Ontario, but the ore is sufficiently rich and plentiful that such large plants are not required. In recent years, however, shafts have been sunk to greater depths, and a concerted effort is being made on some properties to probe beneath the "sill" of basement rock.

Cobalt's first years were as full of the romance, glamour, quick fortune and sudden heartbreak for its people as have been experienced by any mining camp in the world.

Prospectors and mine developers in their search for silver fanned out southward into Lorrain township and northwest as far as Gowganda.

In the first 60 years of its active life, the mines of the Cobalt camp shipped a total of nearly 1,185,000 tons of rich silver ore and concentrates. The total production in that time exceeded 420,500,000 ounces of silver worth more than $264,000,000. The distribution of dividends provided an $80,000,000 jack pot. To ship the ores and bullions extracted from the mines of the camp during those years would require a train of freight cars nearly one hundred miles long - stretching down the track all the way from Cobalt to North Bay.

The condition of world markets has always been the key to Cobalt's health, evidently exerting as great an influence as the ready availability of ore. The full impact on Cobalt of the depression of the thirties was delayed for a few years, but when it hit, it hit hard.

It was inevitable that the cream of the silver harvest should be skimmed off in the prodigal days of fast and easy money. Only the richest ores were recovered and fortunes were left quite undeveloped. Thus it came as a double disaster that at the same time the market for silver dried up, so did the supply of readily available and inexpensive ore.

Cobalt was a very sick town - in the opinion of most observers a dying town. Only a few die - hard Cobalters refused to believe that Cobalt was to become a classic example of mining ghost towns. The solution was at hand and Cobalt found its salvation in the mineral for which the town was named - the mineral which, mixed with the silver ore had been only a nuisance, making the smelting and refining operations much more difficult.

Science, the threat of war, and improving technology all had a part in Cobalt's revival. The mineral cobalt, long used in the form of an oxide in the ceramic industries, now found a host of other uses. At one end of the scale it was used in the Cobalt 60 Therapy Unit (the Cobalt Bomb) to fight the ravages of cancer. At the other extreme, its use as a heat-resistant alloy made possible the development of jet engines for aircraft for use in war and peace. Because of its extreme hardness when alloyed with chromium to form "stellite" it is widely used in the manufacture of cutting tools. It has its place in the manufacture of nylon and in agriculture as an additive to cattle feed. Cobalt indeed is one of the world's most versatile elements.

In its darkest days the cobalt mineral gave the Cobalt mining camp a new lease on life, and until 1957 the search for cobalt went hand in hand with the search for silver wherever the tap of the prospector's pick was heard in the rocky environs of the town.

It was unfortunate for Cobalt that the increasing demand for the metal should have been more than equaled by the discovery of additional sources of supply. The United States government, which had been the principal customer, found that its requirements for current needs and for stockpiling could be supplied from domestic sources, so the purchase contract was allowed to lapse.

Once more Cobalt's livelihood depended on silver alone. The town that should have died in the thirties was still fighting back 20 years later. With the beginning of the sixth decade the indomitable Cobalt spirit began to pay dividends. Mines which had been plodding along from day to day suddenly ran into new ore reserves. Exploration activity throughout the camp took on a new sense of urgency. At the beginning of 1961 the market price of silver began to rise. From 90 cents per ounce it climbed steadily to $1.37 in the next 15 months. With this increased price was coupled a favourable exchange rate on the Canadian dollar that gave the producers about ten cents extra for each ounce of silver. Once again Cobalt's silver rocket was in orbit, and work proceeded to bring some of the old mines into production. Other ground, previously unexplored, was given close attention.

It was in keeping with the Cobalt spirit that in 1963, celebration of the town's 60th anniversary included the formal opening of another mine - the Silver Summit - which had been reactivated on the old Mensilvo and Savage property. The new Silver Summit produced for about one year before its continued operation ceased to be economically feasible. However, just twelve months later, in August 1965, the management entered into an agreement with Silverfields Mining Corporation through which the latter company purchased the Silver Summit mill and an extensive new underground exploration program was to be conducted jointly.

The Silver Summit opening was only one of a number that occurred in the years immediately before and after Cobalt's diamond jubilee.

Three years earlier the Deer Horn Mine had come into production on the Cross Lake O'Brien property. In 1962, Glen Lake Silver Mine was established on the site of the old Bailey Mine. This one proved to be a real winner and within the first ten months of its existence it had produced more than a million ounces of silver.

There are at present three main producers in the Cobalt area. Agnico-Eagle Mines Limited with its producing property at Trout Lake and with Canadian Keeley and Temiskaming under development; Teck Corporation Limited (Silverfields Division), a regular producer, and Canadaka Mines Limited which is exploring the Conisil and Giroux Lake properties. Canadaka is the former Silver Shield Mines property. It is controlled and managed by St. Joseph Explorations. St. Joseph has a 51 per cent interest in the new company with Silver Shields holding the other 49 per cent.

Although Gowganda is about 50 miles from the Cobalt camp, the silver mining operations there may be considered a direct offshoot from the Cobalt boom. One mine there, the Siscoe, until it finally closed in 1972 after 64 years of production claimed to be the oldest continuing silver mining operation in Ontario and the most productive mine devoted primarily to the output of silver. Other former producers in this area are now dormant.

Altogether it is apparent that Cobalt, after more than seven decades of unremitting productivity is still very emphatically a factor to be reckoned with in any assessment of Canada's economic health.

In 1921 the Ontario Department of Mines established the Temiskaming Testing Laboratory at Cobalt to provide a specific service to the mine operators of the area. Because few of the individual mines were large enough to justify the cost of operating their own assay offices and other specialized equipment, it was decided that these services could be performed for all of them at a minimal cost. Ever since its establishment the Laboratory has assayed and sampled all the high-grade ores and concentrates, shipped them to the smelters on behalf of the producers, and performed other similar services to keep the mines operational.

Until 1960, practically the entire output of the Cobalt camp was handled by the Deloro Refinery near Marmora. However, in 1960 this company suspended operations and the mine operators were obliged to send their product to refineries in the United States at considerable cost in revenue for transportation and excise duties.

A means of remedying this situation became available in 1961 when the treatment plant, a few miles south of the town, which had been idle for several years, was taken over by private interests and reactivated. However, a deteriorating economic picture caused the operators, Kam Kotia Mines Limited, to close down the refinery in 1971 when the property was sold to Refractory Metals Processing Limited.

A key drawing card for visitors to the area, the Cobalt Mining Museum offers a display of relics from the early days which is warranted to produce an attack of acute nostalgia in any old timer. This museum has grown steadily and extended its scope so that it is now considered one of the best in situations of its kind in Canada.

Except for Sudbury, no other major mining camp in Canada can boast 70 years of uninterrupted production. The old lady has been the grandmother of Canadian mining, the jewel and the bawd, the reward and the heartbreak of prospector and investor. Now, with advanced years, she has left the follies and extravagances of youth behind. Cobalt may never wholly recapture her former position of wealth and glory, but as the old town begins the eighth decade of life it seems quite likely that some of her sons not yet born may, as adults, earn a living by wresting silver from the surrounding rock.

Great though the camp's actual production of wealth has been, that, in itself, is not the greatest contribution that Cobalt has made to the mining industry and to Canada's economy. Cobalt's greatest single gift lies in the impetus it gave to prospecting and developing the vast mineral resources that still lay unrevealed throughout the breadth of the province and farther a field. It awoke in Canadians a realization of their unsuspected mineral heritage. The goldfields of the Porcupine and Kirkland Lake are direct offshoots of the Cobalt boom. So, in directly, are the great iron ore development in Labrador and other major mining enterprises in Canada and abroad.

• A one-of-a-kind carbonatite igneous intrusion produced several wonderful and unique specimens of exotic species such as the famous weloganite as well as dawsonite, dresserite, franconite, hydrodresserite, montroyalite, strontiodresserite, sabinaite, cryolite, strontianite and more.

• Once a strategic mining area for the steel strengthening metal manganese and the always important iron and zinc, it is now just a museum. It has produced hundreds of exotic manganese, zinc, iron and cobalt minerals, many first described from here and some known only from this mine. The manganese often acts as a fluorescent activator in several mineral species making the mines and many specimens glow like a fluorescent rainbow under ultraviolet light. No other place is like this!

The mines of Franklin and the Sterling Hill Mine at Ogdensburg, Sussex County in northwestern New Jersey are world famous and deservingly so. No other site can boast the same assortment of rare and interesting minerals. Over three hundred different minerals were found at these mines and most are listed in The Minerals of Franklin and Sterling Hill Table. Over 60 new minerals to science were also described from samples taken from these mines, thus claiming these mines as their type locality (these minerals are shown in bold in the table). While other great localities can have similarities with other sites, there simply are no real good parallels with the mineral assortments of Franklin and Sterling Hill, New Jersey.

The geological reasons for this diversity of minerals is somewhat complex. It involves zinc, manganese and iron rich sediments on a pre-Cambrian sea floor being swept up into a regional orogenic event that created a mountain chain in the approximate position of the current Appalachian Mountains. This event however occurred more than a billion years ago. The origin of the zinc, manganese and iron sediments is theorized to have been manganese nodules and/or sulfide producing "black smokers" that we see along mid-oceanic ridges today. Whatever the case, the manganese and zinc is what drives almost all of the unique and exotic mineral species that are found here. Later contact and regional metamorphism, hydrothermal alterations and weathering produced unusual results and thus a whole "mess" of rare zinc and manganese minerals.

The minerals that were found here are unlike those found anywhere else. Unusual manganese and zinc oxides and silicates as well as a few arsenates, are the hallmark of this locality. The primary ore minerals are the franklinite (an iron, zinc and manganese oxide) and willemite (a zinc silicate) and to a lesser extent zincite (a red colored zinc oxide) and hemimorphite (a zinc silicate). Iron is the primary product, in terms of weight, while zinc and manganese are rather significant.

When first exploited, it was thought that the ore minerals were magnetite (an iron oxide) and cuprite (a red colored copper oxide), but the ore behaved differently than other magnetite ores in the smelting process and the "cuprite" yielded no copper. Of course most of the "magnetite" turned out to be a new mineral to science, franklinite and the "cuprite" turned out to be zincite, one of the first new minerals identified in the New World and one of many to come from this locality. As the mining continued, more uses and better techniques for the exploitation of zinc and manganese were found and the mine became a boom for the area. The steel, paint and coal industries (needed to smelt the ore) were all positively affected by these mines. The iron/manganese alloys strengthened steel; while the zinc was used in a variety of paints and in certain alloys.

Fluorescence is a very special trait to many of the minerals here. In fact the city of Franklin calls itself "The Fluorescent Mineral Capital of the World"! Not all the minerals fluoresce, but many do, especially willemite and calcite. It is hard to imagine a single fluorescent mineral display that exists without at least a specimen from Franklin or Sterling Hill. The most ordinary and even dull looking specimens from these localities can literally light up with beautiful reds (calcite) and greens (willemite) under short-wave and long-wave ultraviolet light. These specimens are made even more interesting with a sprinkling of nonfluorescent black franklinite peppering the fluorescent display with opaque black dots. Other fluorescent minerals from here include esporite (bright yellow-green), clinohedrite (orange-yellow), hardystonite (violet-blue), barite (white), manganaxinite (an intense red) and over 70 others.

Manganese is the typical activator, either as a trace element or as a primary element in the fluorescent mineral's chemistry. The ore body at Franklin and Sterling Hill is surrounded by a marble made up of mostly calcite similar in appearance to the calcite of fluorescent fame. Only a few meters from the ore body however, the calcite is non-fluorescent. It lacks the manganese as an activator. This tells geologist how far the manganese permeated into the surrounding rocks.

Several minerals from this site have been cut as gemstones. Many rank as the largest gemstones of their kind in the United States and the world. Although most are not nor have ever been significant on the gemstone markets, they were cut by and for gemstone collectors who seek unusual gemstones. Willemite, zincite, rutile, hodgkinsonite and friedelite are a few of the rare gemstone minerals that have been cut for collectors and museums from here.

Sadly, the mines are now closed and filled with water and rock. Only a few mine dumps remain to provide any new material. Two museums are present to educate the public about these remarkable mines and one allows tours into some of the actual mine shafts and both provide mine dump collecting opportunities. It is easy to see that these mines are truly one of the best mineral localities to ever be discovered and specimens from them should be treasured.

Southwestern Greenland

The mineral regions of Greenland are unknown to the majority of mineral collectors. However there are good reasons for collectors to get acquainted with them. This frigid region has produced nearly three hundred different mineral species and is the type locality for a number of obscure and exotic minerals. Many minerals from here are found nowhere else or are the best examples of their species. Although some of the more important mines are all but played out, there are still some nice specimens to be found from newly discovered sites or from old collections. There are four important mineral localities on the world's largest island: Ivigtut, Ilimaussaq, Narssarsuk and Disko Island.

The most well known of all the Greenland localities is Ivigtut on the Arsuk Fjord on the Western side of Greenland's Southern tip. Ivigtut, also spelled Ivittuut, is the type locality to more minerals than any other Greenland locality and indeed has produced more type specimens than most of the mineral localities of the world. It has produced a large number of sulfides, especially sulfosalts and silicates. But it is its pegmatitic halide minerals that are its greatest distinction. Cryolite is by far the most reknown mineral from Greenland and the Ivigtut region. It was mined here starting in the late eighteenth century until the mine closed in the early 1960's. Cryolite was used as a flux in the processing of aluminum. The addition of cryolite in the process cuts the temperature required to obtain aluminum in half. It was considered so strategic during World War II that American troops were stationed here to protect the mines.

The Ilimaussaq Intrusion in the Kangerdluarssuk Fjord is Greenland's most prolific mineral producer in terms of the number of mineral species. It has produced over two hundred different minerals and a number of them are exclusive to this locality. Intrusions rich in alkali metals, especially sodium, and poor in silica and aluminum formed many of the unique assemblages of minerals. These pegmatitic nepheline syenite rocks produced from these unique intrusions are call agpaitic pegmatites after the nearby town of Agpat, Greenland. Agpaitic pegmatites are found scattered around the world. But the agpaitic pegmatites of the Kola Peninsula, Russia; Langesundfjord, Norway and especially Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada are by far the most famous. The Ilimaussaq Intrusion however is the type locality to many of the more well known agpaitic minerals such as arfvedsonite, eudialyte, eudidymite, polylithionite and sodalite.

The Igaliko nepheline syenite intrusion at Narssarsuk, also spelled Narssarsuaq, is the most well known locality next to Ivigtut. This region has been responsible for a variety of new minerals as well. Another nepheline syenite agpaitic intrusion has made Narssarsuk unique, but a later carbonatite intrusion recrystallized much of the rock and produced some even more unique minerals. This site is the type locality for many rare earth minerals, especially the well known rare earth carbonates ancylite-(Ce), cordylite-(Ce), rontgenite-(Ce) and synchysite-(Ce).

Disko Island is known to zeolite collectors. Located on the Eastern edge of Greenland and stradling the 70th parallel, Disko Island is certainly one of the most Northern of mineral localities. The island is of volcanic origin and within the vesicules of basalt form many varieties of zeolites.

There are many more isolated sites on Greenland that have produced their own unique minerals. Gold and platinum have been found as well as diamond bearing kimberlites. Some localities have produced many unusual native metals such as antimony, bismuth, tin, iron and lead.

Greenland's remoteness, fridgid conditions and environmentally sensitive wilderness areas have limited mineral exploration and exploitation. Specimens from here are currently scarce, but a mineral collector can only hope that there will be more available in the near future. In the table below, most of Greenland's mineral are listed with type specimens shown in bold. Notice the unusual diversity in most of the mineral classes.

---

The mineral localities of Greenland
have been known to produce specimens of:

---

Elements Class:

• Antimony, bismuth, copper, diamond, gold, graphite, iron, lead, platinum, silver and tin.

• ---

  Sulfides Class:

  • Acanthite, allargentum, arsenopyrite, bornite, breithauptite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, chalcostibite, covellite, cubanite, cuprostibite, digenite, djerfisherite, djurleite, dyscrasite, famatinite, galena, gudmundite, loellingite, mackinawite, marcasite, molybdenite, nickeline, pearceite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, seinajokite, skutterudite, sphalerite, stannite, teallite, thalcusite, troilite and westerveldite.

  Sulfosalts Subclass:

  • Aikinite, arcubisite, chalcothallite, eskimoite, gustavite, matildite, polybasite, pyrargyrite, rohaite, skinnerite, tetrahedrite, vrbaite, vikingite and wittichenite.

  ---

  Halides Class:

  • Acuminite, boggildite, bogvadite, chiolite, cryolite, cryolithionite, elpasolite, fluorite, gearksutite, jarlite, pachnolite, prosopite, ralstonite, stenonite, thomsenolite, villiaumite and weberite.

  ---

  Oxides Class:

  • Avicennite, anatase, corundum, cuprite, diaspore, fersmite, gerasimovskite, gibbsite, goethite, ice, ilmenite, lepidocrocite, litharge, lueshite, magnetite, nordstrandite, perovskite, plattnerite, pyrochlore, pyrolusite, pyrophanite, rutile, senarmontite, thorianite, todorokite and valentinite.

  ---

  Carbonates Class:

  • Ancylite-(Ce), azurite, bastnasite, calcite, cerussite, cordylite-(Ce), dolomite, hydrocerussite, ikaite, malachite, nahcolite, parisite, rhodochrosite, rontgenite-(Ce), siderite, smithsonite, synchysite-(Ce), thermonatrite and trona.

  ---

  Sulfates Class:

  • barite, brochantite, connellite linarite wolframite and wulfenite.

  ---

  Phosphates Class:

  • Apatite, beudantite, carbonate-hydroxylapatite, leucophosphite, monazite, rhabdophane and vitusite-(Ce).

  ---

  Silicates Class:

  • aegirine, aenigmatite, albite, allanite-(Ce), analcime, anothoclase, anthophyllite, antigorite, apophyllite, arfvedsonite, ashcroftine-(Y), astrophyllite, augite, barylite, beryllite, bertrandite, biotite, britholite-(Ce), cancrinite, catapleiite, chabazite, chkalovite, chlorite, chrysocolla, clinohumite, cookeite, diopside, eckermannite, elpidite, emeleusite, ephesite, epididymite, epidote, epistolite, eudialyte, eudidymite, fayalite, gaidonnayite, various garnets, genthelvite, gmelinite, gonnardite, halloysite, hastingsite, hedenbergite, helvite, hemimorphite, hiortdahlite, hisingerite, heulandite, ilimaussite-(Ce), ilvaite, joaquinite, katophorite, kentbrooksite, kornerupine, kvanefjeldite, laumontite, leifite, lepidolite, leucophanite, leucosphenite, levyne, lomonosovite, loparite-(Ce), lorenzenite, lovozerite, mesolite, microcline, montmorillonite, mordenite, mosandrite, murmanite, muscovite, nacareniobsite-(Ce), Na-komarovite, narsarsukite, natrolite, naujakasite, nenadkevichite, nepheline, neptunite, niobophyllite, nontronite, okenite, offretite, orthoclase, palygorskite, pectolite, phillipsite, phlogopite, plagioclase, polylithionite, prehnite, quartz, reyerite, riebeckite, rinkite, rosenbuschite, sauconite, scolecite, semenovite-(Ce), sepiolite, serandite, sodalite, sorensenite, sphene, spodiophyllite, steenstrupine-(Ce), stilbite, stillwellite, taeniolite, tetranatrolite, thomsonite, thorite, topaz, tremolite, tugtupite, tundrite-(Ce), tundrite-(Nd), tuperssuatsiaite, turkestanite, ussingite, vesuvianite, vinogradovite, vishnevite, vuonnemite, willemite, xonotlite, zinnwaldite and zircon.

  ---

  bold - indicates that Greenland is the type locality for this mineral.

Harz Mountains and Saxony, Germany 

A whole region of mines produced a diverse group of minerals of over 300 known species. Mining has been going on since pre-Roman times and continues today.

König, U.; SCHWAB, M.: Tectonic structure of the north-western part of the Selke nappe at the northern margin of the Harz Mountains. - Hercynia N.F. 34 (2001):129-159.

The Selke nappe is situated at the northern margin of the Harz Mountains, which is the tectonic border between the Variscan basement and the Triassic-Mesozoic sequence of the subhercynian region. The Upper Devonian volcano-sedimentary sequence of about 800 m overlays the parautochthonous Lower Carboniferous rocks of the Harzgerode Zone. A new mapping of the area and detailed tectonic examinations in the quarry Rieder near Ballenstedt were the basis for a reconstruction of the structural processes that occur at the northwestern part of the Selke nappe. Three factors are responsible for the complex character of the structural conditions of the rocks: the nappe tectonics caused by the deposition of the allochthonous Selke nappe; the elevation along the northern Harz boundary and northward overthrust of the Palaeozoic Harz block over the Mesozoic sediments; and the rotation of single segments of Palaeozoic rocks at wrench-fault movements that caused the formation of upthrusting segments, the so called "Sporne". There was no indication for a common deformation of the steeply dipping Cretaceous sandstones of the "Teufelsmauer" which were erected and overturned during the Santonian uplift and the Palaeozoic. 

LETHMATE, J.; SCHNEIDER, K.: The Teutoburger Forest as a weak buffering area: Water acidification in the Osning-sandstone ridge. - Hercynia N.F. 34 (2001): 161-170.

The Teutoburger Forest (Osning) remains unnamed in all lists of weak buffering landscapes, although its sandstone ridge predisposes acidification of soils and spring waters.

To quantify exactly the hypothesis of the Osning as an area tending to water acidification, the cation and anion composition of ten forest springs was analysed between April 1999 and April 2000.
High concentrations of protons, Al, Pb, SO4 and NO3 qualified the spring waters as extremely acidified. Quantitative empirical models of alkalinity verify the water acidification.

The sum of sulphate and nitrate (SO4 + NO3 µeq/l) which correlates significantly with the pH-value was used to map the amount of acidification compared to other weak buffering areas of Germany.

With the high mean sum of sulphate + nitrate = 1142 µeq/l the sandstone ridge of the Osning fits without contradiction into the geographical picture of acidified forests in the northern highlands of Germany. Its history of acidification and the origin of the acidifying anions sulphate and nitrate are discussed.

DOBLER, L.: Vertical gradients of heavy metals in flooplain sediments of the river Selke as indicator of ancient mining activities in the Eastern Harz Mountains.- Hercynia N.F. 34 (2001): 171-186.

The beginnig of mining activities in the surroundings of the local mining centre in the Eastern Harz Mountains is unknown. First indications are from the late 8th century. Relative highdays of historical mining activities are known from about 1450 AD until 1618 AD and from about 1700 AD until 1765 AD (Straßberg) and 1903 AD respectively (Neudorf/Harzgerode). Until 1765 AD mining for silver ores and Galenit was most important and in the following decades iron ores (Neudorf, Tilkerode) and feldspar became dominant. Geochemical investigations and datings (14C) between Güntersberge and Meisdorf showed that horizontal and vertical patterns of heavy metal contents, especially lead, reflect local mining history. Upstream of Agezucht creek loamy grey sediments (Graulehme) are nearly unaffected by mining, downstream heavy metal contamination is severe and worst between Straßberg and Alexisbad/Mägdesprung. Here mine tailings from processing plants near Straßberg were deposited over older grey sediments until the beginning of the 20th century. High metal concentrations in old grey sediments indicate that mining was at least activ since the late middle ages (13th century) and might have already begun in the early middleage (7th century). Similar results are known from the western parts of the Harz Mountains. After cessation of mining activities typical brown floodplain sediments derived from the catchment area of the River Selke were deposited over the mine tailings. In the youngest sediments concentrations are still high because of mixing with older contaminated sediments and recent input of copper-rich fluid waste from a feldspar mine near Straßberg (active until 1990). Towards the margin of the Harz Mountains heavy metal concentrations decrease and the maximum shifts towards the younger sediments.

JÄGER, C.; MAHN, E.- G.: The semi-dry grasslands near Questenberg (Southern Harz) in relation to their land use history. - Hercynia N.F. 34 (2001): 213-235.

Depending on the particular geological and geomorphological conditions of the gypsum karst around Questenberg the landscape is determined by valleys with dry, more or less steep slopes forming a natural basis for extensive grazing. Especially the manors kept large sheep flocks since about the middle of the 17th until the middle of the 19th century. The grazing of these flocks caused the development of extended xerothermic grasslands (mostly semi-dry grasslands).
Changes in agriculture resulted increasingly since the beginning of the 20th century in abandoning or reducing the intensity of grazing effecting strong changes within the vegetation structure. In extended grassland areas the invasion of shrubs and trees began. The spectrum of semi-dry grasslands shifted from dryer to fresher vegetation units. This development is attributed primarily to abandonment of grazing on the driest sites as by colonizing of former fields by semi-dry grassland species. Today just a few xerothermic grasslands are only very extensively grazed. The funds needed to maintain grazing should be applied in this way that the preservation of valuable semi-dry grassland could be realized on selected sites under long-term conditions.

HEINKEN, T.; HANSPACH, H.; SCHAUMANN, F.: How important is endozoochorous seed dispersal by wild mammals in central European forests? - Hercynia N.F. 34 (2001): 237-259.

In two forest areas in Brandenburg (NE Germany) endozoochorous dispersal of plants by wild herbivorous and omnivorous mammals with a large home range was investigated. Feces of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Cervus dama), hare (Lepus europaeus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) were collected throughout a vegetation period. Seeds from the feces collected each month were germinated in a greenhouse. The results were compared with the forest vegetation of both investigated areas.

The mean contents of germinable seeds within the feces of herbivorous mammals were 20 to 40 times higher than those of wild boar, which apparently ingest only small amounts of seeds in their diet. Taking the population densities and defecation rates into consideration, it is evident that roe and fallow deer disperse high numbers of seed, whereas wild boar and hare only carry small amounts. Altogether, 65 plant species were detected endozoochorously, 13 of these (among others Milium effusum, Moehringia trinervia and Ranunculus ficaria) for the first time. Due to their choice of diet, the spectrum of species dispersed by roe deer was smaller than the spectra of the other animals investigated.

Though the investigated feces were collected within the forest areas, feces of roe deer contained no characteristic forest species, and only small amounts were detected in those of the other wild mammals. In the mesic forest habitat of the Brieselang, the herbivores dispersed almost exclusively annual species from ruderal vegetation, arable land and trampled areas. In the acidic forest habitat of the Krämer, they dispersed in particular species which occur both in oligotrophic grasslands and forests. In general, almost all diaspores dispersed by the herbivorous mammals were small (<1mg), as they are less likely to be damaged during the chewing procedure. Wild boar also defecate live seeds of larger diaspores, among them several cultivated plants.

Several of the species dominating the acidic, and most dominating the mesic, forest stand are obviously dispersed endozoochorously either only very seldom or not at all by the investigated mammals. This is probably because their diaspores are not able to survive the passage through the gut, due to their large size as well as the fact that they are only produced in small numbers. The results confirm the assumption of low dispersal potentials of forest floor species and may be generally applied to central European forest habitats. Thus, at least by endozoochory, roe and fallow deer, hare and wild boar play only a small role in long-distance dispersal of forest species. Their importance may be greater in the dispersal of plant species of the open landscape.

BERGMANN, S.; WITSACK, W.: Arthropods of Saxony-Anhalt (Germany) open-cast post-mining landscapes. 1. Wood-lice (Oniscoidea, Isopoda, Crustacea) - Hercynia N. F. 34 (2001): 261-283.

Between 1996-1998 investigations on Isopoda were carried out within the open-cast post-mining landscapes of Saxony-Anhalt. Species-lists taken from 94 locations are evaluated and characteristic species of the investigated habitat types are shown. Currently 7 species of Isopoda are known from post-mining landscapes of Sachsen-Anhalt. These are 14 % of the known species in Saxony-Anhalt. The paper gives information about the distribution of the recorded species in different mining regions in Central Germany. It makes remarks on the habitat preferences of seven recorded Isopoda-species and the assessment of population densities. Finally the importance of the different habitat types for the Isopoda species is discussed. Most important are the dense vegetated varied grasslands and the forests. Characteristic species of dense vegetated varied grasslands are: Armadillidium vulgare, Porcellio scaber and Trachelipus rathkii. Armadillidium vulgare, Porcellio scaber, Oniscus asselus and Philoscia muscorum are characteristic species of forests.

• A great source of some of the best natural (uncut) gemstone specimens in the world. OK, cut gemstones too. Topaz, beryl (particularly aquamarine), biotite, ruby, sapphire, sphene, muscovite, spessartine and zircon are some of the more striking mineral examples from this remote and politically troubled region.

India has long been synonymous with gemstones. Beryls, pearls, carnelians and Golconda’s storied diamonds were but a few of the precious substances which for millennia drew visitors to the subcontinent. To the ancient Romans, the East, specifically India, was the repository of all wealth. Indians not only sold their mineral treasures to Rome, but were leaders in developing the technologies that allowed such deposits to be exploited. India’s rulers were also the world’s greatest gem collectors, amassing riches of incalculable value.
No land save Sri Lanka has venerated the corundum gems longer than India. In fact, the term corundum is derived from the Sanskrit word kurand. Since the earliest times, ruby and sapphire in India have ranked among the Maharatnani (‘great gems’). India’s ancient jewelers divided gems into two main groups: Maharatnani (‘great gems’) and Uparatnani (‘secondary gems’). In the former class was placed diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire and emerald. Early Sanskrit texts dealt with ratnapariksa (‘investigation of gems,’ or ‘gemology’), and divided blue sapphire (‘nilamani’) into two varieties, indranila and mahanila. The former was described as rarer and more precious, displaying a rainbow blue, while the latter apparently included stones of a darker hue (Brown, 1956). According to Holland (1898), three classes of sapphires were recognized by Indian jewelers: deep blue, those with a tinge of green (subj-pun nílá) and those with a tinge of red (lál-pun nílá).

Supernatural powers were attributed to gems in India. One way this was manifested was the interdependence between gems and planets. Ruby, associated with the Sun, was the Lord of Gems, for the Sun lorded over all the planets. Sapphire was associated with Saturn (Wojtilla, 1973).
The earliest Sanskrit texts mention only Sri Lanka as a source of ruby and sapphire. Somewhat later, Kalinga (northeast India, between the valleys of the Mahanadi and Godavari rivers) and Kalpur (Kalpura; in central India) are added, but neither are today sources of corundum. About 1884, a buried treasure of some sixty rough sapphires was unearthed from a mound amongst the temples atop the sacred hill of Mahendragiri, in the Ganjam district of Kalinga. They were probably placed there as a votive offering at some unknown date in the past. After being cut in Madras, they were examined in by the Geological Survey of India, and pronounced to be of good quality (Brown, 1956).

• A prolific native copper producing region that was first used by Native Americans and is still producing ornamental grade copper specimens.

 The Keweenawan System division of late Precambrian rocks and time in North America (the Precambrian began about 3.8 billion years ago and ended 540 million years ago). Rocks of the Keweenawan System are about 10,700 metres (about 35,000 feet) thick, overlie rocks of the Huronian System, and underlie rocks of the Cambrian System; it has been suggested that the youngest Keweenawan rocks actually may be Cambrian in age. In the Lake Superior region, Keweenawan rocks consist of reddish sandstones, siltstones, shales, and some conglomerates. Great thicknesses of lava flows also occur; it has been estimated that about 100,000 cubic kilometres (24,000 cubic miles) of lava were produced. The burden of the great weight of lava caused the crust beneath to sag and produced the basin that Lake Superior now occupies. The Keweenawan System has been divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper series; the lavas are primarily concentrated in the Middle Keweenawan Series, whereas the Lower Keweenawan Series is dominated by sediments. The Keweenawan System is named for prominent exposures studied at Keweenaw Point, Michigan.

Kimberly, South Africa 

• The most famous diamond producing rock type named for this locality, kimberlite is an ultramafic igneous intrusive body whose origins are still not well understood.

The Greek word for unconquerable is "adamas" the root word for diamond. First discovered in India in the year 800 B.C., diamonds are found today in many parts of the world. The largest number of gem quality stones are produced in South Africa but diamonds are also found in Russia, Australia, South America and the United States. Much of the mining outside of South Africa produces industrial quality diamonds.

One of the first South African diamonds was discovered in 1866 by a young boy along the banks of the Val River. The diamond - the 21 carat Eureka - later became part of a gavel used by the premier of South Africa.

Soon after this amazing discovery, diamond diggers began finding other diamonds in the yellow earth along the Val and Orange Rivers. Below this yellow earth lay a far greater discovery, diamond-bearing layer of blue-grey rock called "blue ground" or "kimberlite." Kimberlite is located in circular "pipes" which are actually the mouths of extinct volcanoes several hundred feet deep. Variations in the structure and color of kimberlite account for the different grades and colors of diamonds.

This 60 mile coast of the Orange River, which divides South and South West Africa, is owned by Consolidated Mines of South West Africa, Ltd. (a part of DeBeers group). It has produced approximately 1 million carats of diamonds a year since 1956.

The largest diamond-bearing pipe in the United States is located in Murfreesboro, Arkansas. The largest diamond ever discovered in the US, the 40-carat "Uncle Sam" came from this pipe. Now a tourist attraction, the Murfreesboro Mine has yielded over 60,000 diamonds since it's discovery in 1906.

Kimberly Mine, which was closed in 1914, was the producer of 14,500,000 carats in diamonds

The Mines of Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo

(formerly Zaire)

• A source of rare phosphate minerals from mining activities extracting uranium, tin, tungsten and tantalum.

It borders on Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Lake Tanganyika on the east. Kivu is divided into three provinces, Nord-Kivu, Sud-Kivu, and Maniema. Coffee, cotton, rice, and palm oil are produced, and tin and some gold are mined. The Ruwenzori Mts., Kahuzi-Biega National Park, and part of Maiko National Park are in the region. Most of Kivu was controlled (1961-62) by the breakaway regime of Antoine Gizenga, which was centered at Kisangani (then Stanleyville).  Kivu was a base for various rebel groups in the 1990s.   

The Congo-Rwanda border, E central Africa; highest lake in Africa (4,788 ft/1,459 m). It is drained by the Ruzizi River, which flows S into Lake Tanganyika. Beneath the lake lie vast reserves of methane gas which have not been exploited. Lake Kivu is a tourist center. Goma, Congo, on the N shore, is subject to the eruptions of nearby Mt. Nyiragongo.  

 Lake Tanganyika is the second largest lake of Africa, c.12,700 sq mi (32,890 sq km), E central Africa on the borders of Tanzania, Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia, and Burundi. It is c.420 mi (680 km) long and up to 45 mi (72 km) wide. The lake lies in the Great Rift Valley (alt. 2,534 ft/772 m) and is the world's second deepest (c.4,700 ft/1,430 m) freshwater lake. Part of the lake's overflow eventually reaches the Atlantic Ocean by way of the Lukuga River. Lake Tanganyika has important fisheries and there are large populations of hippopotamuses and crocodiles. Steamer service connects the chief lakeside cities. David Livingstone and Henry M. Stanley explored (1871) the region. During World War I there were several small naval engagements between the British and the Germans on the lake.

Kola Pennisula, Russia 

An amazing assortment of minerals, many never seen anywhere else, are found here at these complex pegmatitic deposits. The rich assortment of silicate, oxide and phosphate minerals is simply profound.

The Kola Peninsula in northwestern Russia is truely an amazing mineral locality. This large and important region has produced over three hundred different mineral species and is the type locality for over a hundred minerals. The rich bonanza is the result of several unique igneous intrusions that occured from 3 billion years ago to 360 million years ago. Some were rich in alkali metals, especially sodium, and poor in silica and aluminum. Pegmatitic rocks produced from these unique intrusions are call agpaitic pegmatites and are found scattered all around the world. The agpaitic pegmatites of the Kola Peninsula as well as those of Narsarsuk, Greenland; Langesundfjord, Norway and especially Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada are by far the most famous. In addition to agpaitic pegmatites, intrusions of syenites and nepheline syenites, carbonatites, amazonic rand-pegmatites, peralkaline granites and metamorphism add to the mineral assortment with another cast of unique minerals.

In addition to the unusual chemistry of high alkali metal content and low silica and aluminum content; there is also unusually high concentrations of titanium, zirconium, phosphorous, manganese, strontium, zinc, lead, uranium, barium and especially rare earth metals such as yttrium, niobium, cerium, lanthanum, cesium, ytterbium and neodymium. Many of the new minerals found here are typically sodium titanium silicates. By far the greatest number of unique minerals from the Kola Peninsula are silicates. But, unique carbonates, oxides and phosphates are also well represented. In the table below, minerals that were first discovered from the Kola Peninsula (called the mineral's type locality) are in bold. The list below is quite extensive, but still not close to a complete list of all the minerals found here. The list of minerals includes those minerals that were discovered here as well as those that have been given world wide attention from this locality.

The Kola Peninsula sits almost completely above the arctic circle, south of the Barents Sea. Murmansk is the only large city in the Russian portion of what was traditional Lapland. The Khibiny Mountains surrounded by tundra in the center of the peninsula was the result of the mineralogically rich agpaitic alkali intrusions. Glacial erosion helped uncover the pegmatitic rocks which comprise the khibiny and Lovozero massifs. As a testament to this wonderful mineral location, many of the minerals discovered here were named in honor of these localities. Can you find them below?

The mines of the Kola Peninsula have been known to produce specimens of:

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Elements Class:

• gold, native iron and platinum

• ---

  Sulfides Class:

  • galena, marcasite, pyrite, sphalerite and rasvumite.

  ---

  Halides Class:

  • fluorite, fluocerite and villiaumite.

  ---

  Oxides Class:

  • alumotantite, aeschynite, baddeleyite, belyankinite, betafite, cafetite, calciotantite, calzirtite, cesstibtantite, euxenite, fergusonite, fersmite, formanite, gerasimovskite, ilmenite, kassite, loparite-(Ce), lueshite, manganbelyankinite, natroniobite, natrotantite, nioboloparite, plumbopyrochlore, pyrochlore, samarskite, sosedkoite, strontiopyrochlore, tantite, uranpyrochlore, uranmicrolite, vigezzite and zirconolite-2M.

  ---

  Carbonates Class:

  • ancylite-(Ce), barentsite, bastnasite, bonshtedtite, burbankite, calcioancylite-(Ce), calcite, carbocernaite, cordylite, donnayite, ewaldite, ferrotychite, hydroxylbastnasite, huanghoite, kamphaugite, mckelveyite, natrite, natrofairchildite, natroniobite, sidorenkite, simpsonite, synchysite-(Ce), synchysite-(Y), tengerite and zhonghuacerite.

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  Phosphates Class:

  • apatite, arctite, belovite-(Ce), churchite, dorfmanite, kolfanite, kovdorskite, lithiophosphate, lermontovite, lun'okite, monazite, nabophite, nacophite, nastrophite, natrophosphate, nefedovite, olgite, olympite, phosinaite, rhabdophane, vitusite and xenotime.

  ---

  Silicates Class:

  • aegirine, albite, allanite, amicite, analcime, astrophyllite, barytolamprophyllite, beryllite, bornemanite, britholite, canasite, cancrinite, carbonate-vishnevite, catapleiite, caysichite, cerite, chabazite, chevkinite, chkalovite, clinophosinaite, denisovite, elbaite, epididymite, epidote, epistolite, eudialyte, eudidymite, fedorite, fenaksite, fersmanite, foshallasite, gadolinite, gonnardite, grumantite, heulandite, hingganite, hydrodelhayelite, hydroxyl vishnevite, ilmajokite, imandrite, imaussite, imoriite, kainosite, kalborsite, kalsilite, karnasurtite-(Ce), kazakovite, keiviite-(Y), keiviite-(Yb), keldyshite, khibinskite, koashvite, komarovite, kostylevite, kuliokite-(Y), kupletskite, laplandite-(Ce), lamprophyllite, labuntsovite, lavenite, leifite, lithosite, lomonosovite, lorenzenite, lovdarite, lovozerite, magnesium astrophyllite, mangan-neptunite, merlinoite, mesolite, metaberyllite, microcline, milarite, mosandrite, murmanite, Na-komarovite, natisite, natrolite, natrosilite, nenadkevichite, nepheline, neptunite, nordite-(Ce), nordite-(La), parakeldyshite, paraumbite, pectolite, penkvilksite, perlialite, perrierite, phlogopite, phosinaite, pollucite, quartz, raite, revdite, rosenbuschite, rowlandite, sazhinite-(Ce), siedozerite, shafranovskite, shcherbakovite, sobolevite, sphene, steenstrupine-(Ce), stilbite, tainiolite, tetranatrolite, terskite, thalenite, thomsonite, tisinalite, tornebohmite-(La), tugtupite, tundrite, umbite, umbozerite, vinogradovite, vlasovite, vuonnemite, vyuntspakhkite-(Y), wadeite, wohlerite, yttrialite, yugawaralite, yuksporite, zakharovite, zircon, zirsinalite and zorite.

  ---

  bold - indicates that the Kola Peninsula is the type locality for this mineral.

• Rare carbonate and sulfate minerals are known from this mining locality.

One of the south-western counties of Scotland, and the most important county of the country. It ranks only tenth among Scottish counties as to area, but is by far the most populous - containing, indeed, as many inhabitants as the three next in order all taken together, and very nearly a quarter of the whole population of Scotland - and the most valuable, as the valuation, exclusive of burghs, is greater than that of the next two in order taken both together. It is bounded N by Stirlingshire and a detached portion of Dumbartonshire, NE by Stirlingshire, Linlithgowshire, and Edinburghshire, E by Peebleshire, SE and S by Dumfriesshire, SW by Dumfriesshire and Ayrshire and W by Ayrshire, Renfrewshire and Dunbartonshire."

The Lanarkshire Coal Masters’ Association was established in 1886 in Glasgow, Scotland, to regulate wages ‘in accordance with the state of trade and matters relative thereto’. Membership of the association was open to colliery owners who owned coal mines within Lanarkshire, Scotland. It was managed by an executive committee, which existed of the following annually elected officers: a president, two vice-presidents, a secretary and treasurer and representatives from the eight districts into which Lanarkshire was divided. The association held its meeting in Buchanan Street, Glasgow, before moving to the National Coal Board's buildings in Wellington Street, Glasgow, in 1931.

Langban Mine and the whole Varmland District, Sweden 

• Skarn ores produce some very rare and interesting minerals. Nearly 100 unique species of silicates, arsenates, oxides and phosphates have been discovered here.

Långban is the name of a lake and a village in Värmland, central Sweden. At this place of great beauty and long historical traditions, a two-billion-year old natural-historical treasure is hidden in the rock. For possibly more than 300 years there have been mines at Långban, worked for iron ore. In the middle of the 19th century, extraction of manganese ore also started. Along with this, several new minerals of unusual composition were discovered, and Långban's reputation as a mineralogical horn of plenty was subsequently established. Mineral scientists as well as amateur collectors from all over the world have for a long time been attracted and fascinated by the complexity and beauty of these, in many cases, colourful mineral assemblages. As it comes to species diversity, Långban can well be compared to world-famous deposits like Franklin, New Jersey or Tsumeb, Namibia. To the present day, nearly 270 different mineral phases have been recorded from Långban. Many of them are still unique to the deposit, and the list of type minerals presently contains 67 species. Interesting new finds of rare minerals are made every year on the mine dumps.

Langesundfjord, Norway

• Another agpaitic pegmatite is responsible for this great mineral site near Oslo. A highly diverse mineral assemblage that is rich in silicate and rare earth minerals.

Llallagua, Potosi, Bolivia

• Unique iron phosphate minerals and tin ores characterize this wonderful mineral locality.

Lavrio (formerly Lavrion, Laurium), Attiki, Greece 

• Very rare assortment of minerals centered around lead, phosphate and halide minerals. Many minerals are found in ancient slag dumps from some of the earliest mining in Greece. Rare minerals from this locality include paralaurionite, laurionite, ktenasite, zincaluminite, fiedlerite, nealite, penfieldite, serpierite, thorikosite, glaucocerinite, beudantite, georgiadesite and phosgenite to name just a few.

Magnet Cove, Arkansas. USA 

• Unusual assemblage of titanium minerals such as rutile, anatase, brookite, schorlomite, lourenswalsite, kimzeyite, delindeite and perovskite to name a few.

Meteoritic Minerals

Minerals associated with meteorites; Both those found in meteorites and those found as a result of meteor impact.

• A rich and geologically diverse mining corridor of copper, lead, silver, tellurium, iron, gold and zinc mines that extends in a line from the border of Arizona in Sonora to Mexico City. It has produced innumerable quantities of affordable, quality mineral specimens.

It is a little unfair to compare an entire country to the other great mineral localities; but in this case there are so many wonderful localities in Mexico that it would seem appropriate. Since Mexico's recorded history began, its mineral wealth has played an important role. Moctezuma tried to deter Cortez with gifts of gold and silver. But this offering only enticed him more and the rest is as they say, history.

The reasons for inclusion of Mexico on the list of great mineral localities are many. At least sixty minerals claim Mexico as their type locality, meaning that they were first found and described there. In addition to silver, many other metals have been mined from here including gold, copper, iron, molybdenum, lead, zinc, manganese, arsenic and tellurium. Mexico has been mined for centuries dating back to pre-historic times and still is producing significant tonnages of valuable ores. An estimated 1/5 to 1/3 of all silver that has been recovered from the Earth has come from Mexico. The list of outstanding minerals from this country includes collector favorites listed here in no particular order: danburite, opal, grossular, apatite, rhodochrosite, topaz and other gemstones, legrandite, creedite, wulfenite, adamite (the best in the world), acanthite, pyrargyrite, boleite, silver, polybasite, stephanite and other silver minerals, fluorite, amethyst (the most expensive amethyst in the world), pyrrhotite, galena, rosasite, smithsonite, goethite, calcite (especially onyx), hematite, pyrite, hemimorphite, paradamite, mimetite, anhydrite crystals, cumengite, stibiconite, agate, gypsum (especially from Cave-of-the-Swords), cassiterite, scorodite, arsenopyrite, barite, etc, etc! And these don't include the really rare minerals! See the more complete table of Mexican minerals that includes the type minerals as well as collector favorites. Mexico has truly been a gift to the mineral collector.

The localities within Mexico are just as well know to collectors as the minerals that come from them. Place names such as Mapimi, Naica, Zacatecas, Boleo, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, Santa Eulalia, Sonora, Vera Cruz, Guerrero and Los Lamentos stir images of fantastic collection specimens. Some of these places are no longer producing the same amazing specimens while others seem to have new finds that exceed the last.

The silver mines have their special place in Mexican mining history as well as a major role in the development of the history of the New World. The mines of Zacatecas, Arizpe, Guanajuato, Pachuca, Batopilas, Fresnillo, Puebla and Taxco are world reknown for rich ore deposits and well formed specimens of silver and silver sulfides. The silver mines of Mexico have produced perhaps as much as a third of the silver that the world has ever used. The silver wire specimens are fantastic and rival those from Harz, Germany and Kongsberg, Norway. The silver sulfides of which most are sulfosalts are extraordinary and are rare mineral favorites. Today silver production has dropped off somewhat but Mexico is still a leading world producer.

Mapimi, in the state of Durango, is perhaps the most well known locality from Mexico. It has produced the very best specimens of fluorescent adamite (see above) as well as nice specimens of hemimorphite and wulfenite. Adamite is found at other localities around the world such as Tsumeb, Namibia and Laurium, Greece but few specimens from these localities compete with the best specimens of Mapimi. An estimated 95% of all collection specimens of adamite have come from Mapimi. Mapimi is a limestone replacement deposit that is particularly rich in rare arsenic minerals. Other rare minerals from Mapimi include legrandite, lotharmeyerite, mapimite, metakottigite, wulfenite, rosasite, paradamite, descloizite, cuproadamite and ojuelaite. The Ojuela Mine is the primary source of Mapimi specimens and ojuelaite is named for this outstanding mineral provider. The wonderful thing is the affordability of the adamites and hemimorphites which allows for beginning collectors to own these unique and exciting minerals.

Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua has produced beautiful specimens of creedite, calcite, hemimorphite, smithsonite, rhodochrosite and much more. Santa Eulalia is almost as prolific as Mapimi. The Potosi Mine in Santa Eulalia is one of the more productive mines in the area in terms of collection specimens. The rhodochrosite, from here was already famous when the discovery of beautiful purple creedite was made. Some creedite, had such a beautiful purple color with quartz-like clarity that they were originally mistaken for amethyst.

The state of Chihuahua in North central Mexico is also home to a wonderful mineral locality known as Naica. At Naica, complex crystals of fluorite adorn specimens of sparkling calcite, brassy pyrite and silver colored galena. Naica fluorites are quickly becoming classics among fluorite collectors. They are perhaps the finest examples of fluorite's cube/octahedron/dodecahedron combination as well as the even rarer cube/tetrahexahedron. Some crystals even display a cube/dodecahedron/tetrahexahedron combination! Fluorites are not the only mineral of note from Naica. Excellent crystals of sky blue anhydrite in association with sparkling snow white calcite crusts are also found there. This combination really made an impression on the mineral community as massive dull anhydrite is quite common, but fine world class anhydrite crystals are rare.

The state of Sonora on the border with the United States just south of Arizona, is also well know for producing many nice mineral specimens. An extensive mining region exists in Sonora and is geologically tied to the same type of mineralogy as is in the mining districts of Arizona. Copper, copper compounds, silver and silver sulfides are abundant here. Tellurates from the mines of Moctezuma are quite unusual, having provided at least seventeen new tellurate minerals to science as well as specimens of many other tellurium minerals.

Baja California, the prominent peninsula on the pacific coast of Mexico is home to Boleo. Boleo has produced some rare halide minerals such as boleite, pseudoboleite, percylite, atacamite, paratacamite and cumengite. Boleite is a silver copper lead chloride and has a bright blue color. Cumengite forms pyramidal overgrowths on the faces of boleite cubes forming six pointed, star-shaped composite crystals. These halide minerals are very special additions to the mineral kingdom.

While lacking in some of the more precious gemstone varieties, Mexico still does quite well for itself in the gemstone world. Danburite from Charcas, San Luis Potosi is world reknown and recently unearthed large clear crystals are easily found on the mineral markets. Topaz is also found in the state of San Luis Potosi and can be quite nice. A variety of grossular known as "Raspberry Garnet" (pictured above) is found in Coahuila and is quite prized. Another garnet gem found in Mexico is andradite and forms iridescent green gemstones. Another green gem is olivine and it is mined in the Chavira peridot-olivine mines in Chihuahua. The famous apatite crystals (pictured above) from Cerro Mercado, a productive iron mine, are prized for their clarity. Outstanding opal of many different varieties is widespread in Mexico and occurs in pockets in volcanic rocks such as rhyolites and basalts. Mexican precious opal is distinctive and makes a valuable contribution to the gemstone markets. Fire agate is one of the more precious of the different agates and some of the best in the world comes from Mexico. Surprisingly colorful rainbow obsidian and other varieties of obsidian are very abundant and widespread. Amber is found at Chiapas and is similar to the Dominican Republic amber. Both are about the same age (roughly 20 - 30 million years old) and probably came from a similar prehistoric tree. Attractive vesuvianite is found in skarn deposits with grossular garnets. The excellent rhodochrosite from Mexico is also cut as a gemstone.

No discussion of Mexican minerals or Mexican gemstones would be complete without mentioning the not one, but two outstanding amethyst localities of Vera Cruz and Guerrero. These amethyst locations produce some of the most unique amethyst specimens. The Vera Cruz amethysts are often doubly terminated, prismatic, attached to matrix or free floating and clear with a pale lavender color. The Guerrero amethyst is much darker in color, prismatic, phantomed, tapering and majestic. The more affordable Vera Cruz amethyst is popular in wire-wrapped jewelry and as collection specimens. Guerrero amethyst is perhaps the most expensive amethyst in the world by weight and this is quite understandable as one look at a classic Guerrero specimen shows that there simply is no other amethyst like it.

It is a pleasure to write about Mexican minerals. The number of excellent specimens from this country is truly staggering. Mexico is easily placed with Brazil and the United States as the world's largest suppliers of collectable minerals. There simply is not enough space to discuss all of the wonderful minerals and mineral localities of Mexico. The unique igneous intrusions, odd geological events and arid to semi-arid environment of Mexico have thankfully worked together to produced this great mineral treasure trove. No collection should be without at least some specimens from Mexico.

• Perhaps not a producer of many rare minerals, but truly an excellent source for many prized specimens of fluorite, dolomite, calcite, galena, sphalerite, marcasite, witherite, celestite, barite, chalcopyrite, strontianite and pyrite to name a few.

Mogok, Myanmar (Burma)

• A whole wealth of gemstones has graced the world from this locality. Gemstones such as chrysoberyl, spinel, ruby, sapphire, olivine, orthoclase, zircon, topaz, danburite, apatite and other minerals such as painite and sillimanite are all splendid and in ample quanities from this jewel of a mineral locality.

According to legend, Mogok was originally settled by a gang of bandits banished from Mandalay in the 15th century by the king. They subsequently discovered rubies in the valley and sent them to the king, who in return, pardoned the exiles. Fortunately, they decided to stay and continue searching for more gemstones. Throughout Mogok’s history, all large rubies were officially the property of the King or the government. This official decree, though punishable by death if broken, is said to have to have resulted in the disappearance of many large rubies (either broken into smaller pieces in order to avoid the decree or hidden for generations).
     Upper Burma was annexed by the English Empire and placed under India’s rule in 1886. Streeter & Co. of London formed “Ruby Mines Ltd.” in 1887 and continued official operation in Mogok until 1925. The arrival of commercial quantities of synthetics, World War I, and the Great Depression ultimately forced the British to relinquish control entirely to the Burmese.
    Through traditional but economically effective methods, practiced for centuries before the arrival of the British, the Burmese diligently continued their quest for gems. This type of mining continued until government nationalization of the region in 1962. Mogok has remained off limits to most visitors for almost three decades. Liberalization of mining in Mogok was initiated by the Myanma Gems Enterprise in 1991, and today there are many joint-venture, as well as independent pendent mining operations, employing more advanced mining techniques and equipment, thereby improving production considerably. However, visits by foreigners to Mogok are not allowed except in special cases, and mining is restricted to Myanma citizens and MGE.

 Burma, presently known as Myanmar, is experiencing many changes which will hopefully lead to a resurgence of supply, and therefore demand, for its most precious resource; gemstones. Myanmar has been historically associated with the very finest rubies and jadeites, as well as some of the best sapphire, peridot, spinel and numerous other rare gemstones. However, supply has been limited since Myanmar has managed to keep itself isolated from global affairs for the past three decades. Since our first visit in March of 1993, PaIa International has returned to this enchanted land on numerous occasions to establish more open relations with Myanma Gems Enterprise (MGE), as well as independent miners. We have had the honor of consulting with the Burmese about new techniques for advancing their primary mining and updating their gemological equipment. In turn, we are learning from their traditional and practical experience of gemstone mining. Upon our visits we have managed to purchase a number of exquisite gems and mineral specimens.
    Our most recent journey to Myanmar in March, 1995, proved that we would be rewarded for the past two years of patience and diligence. We were able to return to the remote mining town of Mogok where the world’s most famous rubies have originated for centuries. After attending the 32nd MGE Gem, Jade, and Pearl Emporium in the capitol of Yangon (formerly Rangoon), we flew north to Mandalay, where our l00 mile (ten hour) cross-country trek by jeep would begin. We were accompanied by two armed guards to protect us from dacoits (the French word for ‘bandits’), which we might encounter on the way. Various insurgents posed less of a threat since our friends are well-known miners in the area. Following is a brief summary of Mogok’s fascinating history and geology, as well as pertinent gemological information.

• A great source of collection enhancing specimens of lead minerals such as cerussite, anglesite and vanadinite as well as other minerals such as conichalcite, erythrite, austinite, brannerite and roselite from localities such as Bou Azzer, Touissit Mine and Mibladen.

Originally inhabited by Berbers, Morocco became a province of the Roman Empire in the 1st cent. AD After successive invasions by barbarian tribes, Islam was brought by the Arabs in 685. An independent Moroccan kingdom was established in 788; its dissolution in the 10th cent. began a period of political anarchy. The country was finally united in the 11th cent. by the Almoravids, a Berber-Muslim dynasty, who established a kingdom reaching from Spain to Senegal. Unity was never complete, however, and conflict between Arabs and Berbers was incessant. European encroachment began in 1415, when Portugal captured Ceuta, and ended with the Portuguese defeat at the battle of Ksar el Kebir (Alcazarquivir) in 1578. In the 19th and early 20th cent. the strategic importance and economic potential of Morocco once again excited the European powers, sparking an intense, often violent, rivalry among France, Spain, and Germany. Finally, in 1912, most of Morocco became a French protectorate; a small area became a Spanish protectorate. Nationalist feelings began to surface in the 1930s, becoming more militant after World War II, and in 1956 Morocco gained its independence.

In 1957 the sultan became King Muhammad V. He was succeeded in 1961 by his son, Hassan II, whose early reign, plagued by internal unrest, coups, and assassination attempts, was repressive. Hassan's position was strengthened in 1976, when Spain relinquished the Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) to joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control. Challenged by the Polisario Front, a guerrilla movement backed by Algeria and seeking independence for the area, Mauritania withdrew in 1979, but Morocco continued battling there and claimed the entire territory.

King Hassan died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son Muhammad VI. Initially extremely popular, the new king revealed himself to be a strong advocate of social change and economic improvement. In July, 2002, Morocco occupied an uninhabited islet off Ceuta that is claimed by Spain, drawing international attention to the disputed Spanish enclaves along Morocco’s Mediterranean coast. After Spanish forces removed the Moroccans, both sides agreed to leave the islet unoccupied.

• Phosphate mines and gemstone pegmatites produce a rich assortment of minerals.

Pribram, Czech Republic

• Many unusual minerals have been found here including silver and cadmium sulfides, uranium ores and lead sulfosalts.

Rapid Creek and Big Fish River areas, Yukon Territory, Canada 

• Relatively new mineral localities that have already left their mark on the mineral world with rare earth, phosphate and uranium minerals in abundance. Especially noteworthy are the lazulite, whiteite and ludlamite specimens that are coming from these mines.

Ratnapura Gem Mines, Sri Lanka

• A most prolific placer mining district that produces much of the world's supply of gemstones including rare gemstone minerals that are only found here. The rest of Sri Lanka has produced some exotic minerals as well.

• The product of a wonderfully unique crystallization sequence that has produced many outstanding agpaite pegmatititc minerals.

  The Mont Saint-Hilaire site is truly a unique mineral locality. It has produced specimens of over three hundred different minerals with nearly 30 that are new to science and many more yet to be officially recognized as new minerals. The minerals from this site are listed in the comprehensive table of Mont Saint-Hilaire minerals. New minerals (shown in bold in the table) count Mont Saint-Hilaire as their type locality.

  Mont Saint-Hilaire is a geologically unusual locality. It is called an "agpaitic pegmatite" which is named for a geologically similar locality, Agpat, Greenland. There are other agpaitic pegmatites around the world, but the most famous are the Ilimaussaq intrusion in southern Greenland, those found in the Kola Peninsula of Russia, the intrusion at Langesundfjord in Norway and of course Mont Saint-Hilaire. Agpaitic pegmatites are alkali rich intrusions that contain a low concentration of aluminum and silica as compared to other igneous intrusions. The alkali metals include sodium, lithium and potassium, but sodium is the most common constituent of the three by far at Mont Saint-Hilaire. In addition to large percentages of these elements, there are also relatively significant percentages of titanium, zirconium, chlorine, manganese, rare earth metals, bromine and fluorine.

  At least three separate intrusions occurred at Mont Saint-Hilaire. These intrusions incorporated chunks of the host rock or "country rock" into themselves. These assimilations resulted in much of the diversity here. Smaller chunks were melted away and therefore made a change in the chemistry of the intrusion. Larger chunks survived complete melting, but the heat and pressure of the molten magma metamorphosed many of the minerals in these chunks into new minerals which might now contain some of the volatiles of the intrusions. In addition rocks from earlier intrusions would also be assimilated into the next intrusion and so on.

  There are other reasons for the great diversity at Mont Saint-Hilaire. A brine present in the country rock at the time of some of the intrusions introduced new elements and volatiles. The pegmatitic stage was also able to have several avenues toward formation including dikes, miarolitic cavities and fracture fillings in brecciated rocks. These isolated environments of pegmatitic formation were all unique depending on chemistry, pore fluid pressure, timing, temperature and the rocks already present. There are many reasons for Mont Saint-Hilaire's great diversity: many are known and many are yet to be explained.

  The most renowned mineral from Mont Saint-Hilaire is unquestionably the rare serandite. It has a wonderful salmon color and interesting crystal habit. A favorite among collectors, its only reliable source for good quality specimens is Mont Saint-Hilaire. It is arguable as to who made who famous: did serandite make Mont Saint-Hilaire famous or did Mont Saint-Hilaire make serandite famous. Either way the two are inseparable in the minds of mineral collectors.

  There are a host of fluorescent minerals that come from Mont Saint-Hilaire. Although not as well known for fluorescent minerals as Franklin, New Jersey, Mont Saint-Hilaire produces many fluorescent species. The fluorescent activators are from a variety of elements such as manganese, lead, europium, sulfur, some rare earths and possibly uranium. Some of the following minerals from here have been known to produce fluorescent specimens: albite, analcime, apophyllite, calcite, catapleiite, cerussite, elpidite, fluorapatite, fluorite, franconite, gaidonnayite, genthelvite, griceite, helvite, hydrozincite, kogarkoite, leucophanite, leucosphenite, leifite, lorenzenite, milarite, monteregianite, natrolite, nenadkevichite, parakeldyshite, pectolite, polylithionite, quartz, remondite, sanidine, scheelite, sodalite, sphalerite, strontianite, terskite, tetranatrolite, thornasite, tugtupite, villiaumite, vinogradovite, vuonnemite, willemite, wurtzite and zircon. Not every specimen of the above mentioned minerals are fluorescent (except for willemite), but each has produced some specimens that are.

  The vast majority of minerals at Mont Saint-Hilaire are silicates. However several rare and new carbonates and oxides are also found here. Besides serandite there are other note-worthy Mont Saint-Hilaire minerals including aegirine, analcime, synchysite, leifite, elpidite, catapleiite, villiaumite, helvine, genthelvite, narsarsukite, grossular, polylithionite, smoky quartz, tugtupite, astrophyllite, sodalite and so many more.

  Mont Saint-Hilaire has also supplied the world with facetable material of its rare minerals, some rather large. In fact several North American gemstone size records are held by Mont Saint-Hilaire gemstones. These record holders include analcime, burbankite, carletonite, catapleiite, cryolite, leifite, leucophanite, manganotantalite, manganotichite, narsarsukite, pectolite, remondite, serandite, shortite, siderite, sodalite and villiaumite. Although none of the facetable minerals from Mont Saint-Hilaire are considered mainstream gemstones (with the exception of garnets), they are none-the-less large cut gemstones. For a comprehensive list of minerals from this wonderful site see The Table of Mont Saint-Hilaire Minerals.

  ---

• Much information on this locality was provided by Alkali-Nuts, Mont Saint-Hilaire site, "Fluorescence" by Manuel Robbins and "Gemstones of North America (vol 3)" by Sinkankas.

San Benito County, California, USA 

• Most famous for benitoite, natrolite, neptunite and joaquinite specimens.

San Diego County, California, USA

• Produces one-of-a-kind tourmaline (elbaite), quartz and lepidolite specimens and a whole assortment of rare minerals.

Shaba, Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) 

• Copper and cobalt mining district with many rare and unique minerals totalling over 300 species. Most mineral collectors just need one word to get their hearts and minds drifting to thoughts exotic and beautiful mineral specimens: SHABA.

• A rich assortment of arsenate minerals has been found here.

• Mineralogically unique suite of minerals centered around nickel and platinum sulfide varieties.

• A great source of rare sulfides. One of the classic mineral localities.

• Remarkable mining corridor in central Russia that stretches along the nearly north-south mountain chain that divides Europe from Asia. This area has produced many valuable gemstones as well as a diverse assemblage of exotic mineral specimens.

Until its collapse, the Soviet Union was the world's second largest producer of gold. Russia itself contributed two-thirds of that gold and has a long history as a leading producer. Today, Russia ranks seventh with around 130-140 tonnes (4.2-4.5 million oz) in 1999.

 
Core samples from exploration spread out in a Russian forest
(Credit: Novosti)

Taken with Russia's former partners, the new Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) has output around 260 tonnes (8.4 million oz).

Gold production in Russia goes back many centuries. Rich alluvial deposits in the Ural mountains yielded gold that passed down ancient trade routes to the Black Sea, Constantinople (Istanbul) and the Mediterranean.

In 1744 a quartz outcrop found at Ekaterinburg in the Urals stimulated expansion. In 1823 Czar Alexander I set up a commission to encourage expedition. By 1830 output around Ekaterinburg was almost 6 tonnes (0.19 million oz). As prospectors moved east into the Altai mountains and to Siberia along the Yenisei river locating fresh alluvial deposits, production rose to 25 tonnes (0.8 million oz) by 1846, making Russia the world's top producer on the eve of the Californian and Australian gold rushes.

 
Dredge working at night in a winter landscape (Credit: Novosti)

Although overtaken by the United States, Australia and South Africa, Russia's output rose to 60 tonnes (1.9 million oz) by 1914.  After the Revolution, Stalin saw gold mining as a way of opening up the vast wastes of Siberia, having noted the effect of California on the development of the American West.

By the 1930s output was 155 tonnes (5 million oz). Thereafter, no hard production information was available until the 1990s, but the Soviet Union certainly stayed in second place after South Africa. The output was aided by the opening of the giant Muruntau open pit in Ubekistan in 1969.

In Russia itself most production has always come from placer deposits in Siberia and the Russian Far East, concentrated between the Lena and Aldan rivers, the province of Magadan and the Kamchatka and Chukotsk peninsulas.

 

Russia is the main gold-producing region of the Commonwealth of Independent States

The harsh climate means the mining is seasonal; even in summer extracting fold from terrain locked solid by the permafrost is difficult. Much of the gold is won by huge dredgers excavating gold-bearing sands in the rivers once they thaw. The heart of the system is over 200 cartels or co-operatives, each managing their own affairs and employing between 30 and 1,000 people.

• This most unusual and deadly volcano on the coast of the Tyrrhenian Sea has produced some pretty exotic minerals. They formed from detached blocks of limestone that partially recrystallized in its molten lava tubes before ejection during the volcanoes numerous and fortuitous eruptions (fortuitous for mineral enthusiasts anyway).

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